Status of Glaciers in Glacier National Park Active
Blackfoot Glacier
2009
Grinnell Glacier
2009
Unnamed Glacier on Norris Mountain
2009
Glaciers on the Glacier National Park (GNP) landscape have ecological value as a source of cold meltwater in the otherwise dry late summer months, and aesthetic value as the park’s namesake features. USGS scientists have studied these glaciers since the late 1800s, building a body of research that documents widespread glacier change over the past century. Ongoing USGS research pairs long-term data with modern techniques to advance understanding of glacier physical processes, alpine ecosystem impacts, and climate linkages. By providing objective scientific monitoring, analysis, and interpretation of glacier change, the USGS helps land managers make well-informed management decisions across the Glacier National Park landscape.
WHAT IS A GLACIER? A glacier is a body of snow and ice that moves under its own weight. Glacier movement may be detected by the presence of crevasses, cracks that form in the ice as the glacier moves. All glaciers are dynamic, changing in response to temperature and precipitation – growing when winter snowfall exceeds summer melting, and shrinking when melting outpaces accumulation of new snow. Most of the glaciers in Glacier National Park are relatively small cirque glaciers, occupying alpine basins along the Continental Divide. In GNP, ice bodies are classified as glaciers when their area exceeds 0.1 km2 (100,000 m2), or about 25 acres.
TRACKING GLACIERS OVER TIME: The extensive valley glaciers that carved GNP’s majestic peaks were part of a glaciation that ended about 12,000 years ago. The smaller alpine glaciers that cling to mountainsides today have been present on the landscape since at least 6,500 years ago. These glaciers grew substantially during the Little Ice Age (LIA) that began around 1400 AD and reached their maximum size around 1850 AD. Their maximum sizes can be reconstructed from the mounds of rock and soil left behind, known as moraines. A comprehensive inventory of moraines visible in satellite imagery revealed that there were 80 glaciers (>0.1 km2) at the peak of the Little Ice Age in GNP’s boundary. Similarly, comprehensive analysis of modern glacier extent documented in satellite imagery showed that in 2005, the number of glaciers >0.1 km2 had decreased to 32. Thus, over the roughly 150 years between the mid-19th century LIA glacial maximum and the advent of the 21st century, the number of glaciers >0.1 km 2 within GNP decreased by nearly 60%.
Comprehensive inventories of glaciers across the Glacier National Park landscape include named and unnamed glaciers. Yet inspecting the subset of named glaciers alone reveals the same trend of glacier loss. This time series of glacier retreat reveals glacier loss and area reduction since 1966.
All glaciers in Glacier National Park have decreased in area, but the rates of retreat are not uniform. Studies of local topographic effects show that variations in glacier geometry, ice thickness, elevation, shading, input from avalanching, and the contribution of wind-deposited snow, likely account for each glacier’s unique rate of change.
HOW MANY GLACIERS IN GNP?
The USGS uses aerial photographs and satellite imagery to delineate glacier margins, calculate glacier area, and track glacier change in the Glacier National Park region. This approach allows for inventories that meet the needs of different stakeholder groups who are interested in different subsets and area cutoff criteria depending on their focus, interest, and needs. The table below enumerates glaciers according to different groups: named, comprehensive (including unnamed glaciers), > 0.1 km2, > 0.01 km2. The alternative 0.01 km2 size threshold includes very small glaciers in accordance with the Randolph Glacier Inventory, a global database that international scientists use to calculate ice volume and model glacier dynamics.
These distinct glacier inventories serve various scientific purposes. The “named glaciers” subset and > 0.1 km2 area cutoff remains consistent with previous USGS studies and supports inquiry focused on this recognized group of glaciers. The comprehensive “all glaciers” inventory and smaller > 0.01km2 threshold captures the spatial distribution of all glaciers in the park and can be used to estimate overall hydrologic contribution of water stored in ice.
Glacier margin time series and area change assessments are relatively straightforward to generate when adequate aerial or satellite imagery is available. However, these metrics of documenting glacier change are limited, because tracking the glacier’s footprint does not account for glacier thinning or thickening. Capturing that vertical dimension of change requires elevation data. Pairing glacier area change with glacier surface elevation change allows for volume loss estimates. This information provides researchers with a more hydrologically significant understanding of the magnitude of glacier loss in complete three dimensional space, not just at the glacier perimeter. Ongoing USGS research uses satellite imagery and photogrammetry to quantify glacier volume change across the region rather than only at individual glacier sites.
- GNP Glacier Inventory Data – digitized glacier margins derived from aerial and satellite imagery (shp files and metafile)
- Glacier Area Information Table - named glaciers of GNP and Flathead National Forest (also see PDF directly below)
WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD? Forecasting the future of glaciers involves model development. Previous USGS geospatial modeling forecast premature demise for the glaciers in Glacier National Park because these models did not account for existing ice volume and other physical factors that control glacier response to warming. More recent research led by the World Heritage Programme forecast 21st century glacier fate across United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage sites. This physical modeling predicts near total Glacier National Park glacier disappearance by 2100. USGS analysis shows that localized factors such as ice thickness, shading, and wind effects may mediate the exact timing of ice disappearance, yet the small size of the glaciers in Glacier National Park provides little buffer against a warming climate. This contrasts the modeled outcome for larger glaciers, which persist beyond 2100 in climate scenarios where greenhouse gas emissions are mitigated. Ongoing USGS research will continue to monitor the glaciers at Glacier National Park and other glacierized ecosystems in North America.
REFERENCES:
USGS Products
1. Martin-Mikle, C.J., and Fagre, D.B., 2019, Glacier recession since the Little Ice Age: Implications for water storage in a Rocky Mountain landscape: Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, v:51, p: 280-289, https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70208603.
2. Fagre, D.B., McKeon, L.A., Dick, K.A., and Fountain, A.G., 2017, Glacier margin time series (1966, 1998, 2005, 2015) of the named glaciers of Glacier National Park, MT, USA: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/F7P26WB1.
Non-USGS Products
3. Bosson, J.B., Huss, M., and Osipova, E., 2019, Disappearing world heritage glaciers as a keystone of nature conservation in a changing climate: Earth’s Future, v: 7, p: 469–479.
Related Links:
- USGS Glacier Retreat Fact Sheet
- Time series of GNP Glacier Retreat
- USGS Repeat Photography Project
- Overview of Glacier National Park’s Glaciers (NPS)
- USGS Benchmark Glaciers
- Global Land Ice Measurements from Space
- Randolph Glacier Inventory
- World Glacier Monitoring Service
- National Park Service Repeat Photography Teacher Trunk
Below are other science projects associated with this project.
Repeat Photography Project
Science in Glacier National Park
Time Series of Glacier Retreat
Glacier Monitoring Studies
Below are data or web applications associated with this project.
Glaciers of Glacier National Park Repeat Photography Collection
Glacier margin time series (1966, 1998, 2005, 2015) of the named glaciers of Glacier National Park, MT, USA
Below are multimedia items associated with this project.
Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers: 8/9/1910 M Elrod, U of M Library – 9/27/2016 L McKeon, USGS
Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers: 8/9/1910 M Elrod, U of M Library – 9/27/2016 L McKeon, USGS
Boulder Glacier: circa 1910 M Elrod, Glacier National Park Archives - 8/24/2007 D Fagre & G Pederson, USGS
Boulder Glacier: circa 1910 M Elrod, Glacier National Park Archives - 8/24/2007 D Fagre & G Pederson, USGS
Blackfoot & Jackson Glaciers: 8/1/1914 EC Stebinger, USGS Photographic Library – 9/3/2009 L McKeon, USGS
Since the historic photo was taken, Blackfoot Glacier has retreated and fragmented into two separate glaciers, Blackfoot (foreground) and Jackson (distant) Glaciers.
Blackfoot & Jackson Glaciers: 8/1/1914 EC Stebinger, USGS Photographic Library – 9/3/2009 L McKeon, USGS
Since the historic photo was taken, Blackfoot Glacier has retreated and fragmented into two separate glaciers, Blackfoot (foreground) and Jackson (distant) Glaciers.
Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers: 8/9/1910 M Elrod, U of M Library – 9/27/2016 L McKeon, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers: 8/9/1910 M Elrod, U of M Library – 9/27/2016 L McKeon, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Agassiz Glacier: 8/5/1913 WC Alden, USGS Photographic Library - 8/24/2007, D Fagre, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Agassiz Glacier: 8/5/1913 WC Alden, USGS Photographic Library - 8/24/2007, D Fagre, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Chaney Glacier: 1911, MR Campbell, USGS Photographic Library – 8/19/2005 Karen Milone, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Chaney Glacier: 1911, MR Campbell, USGS Photographic Library – 8/19/2005 Karen Milone, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Boulder Glacier Ice Cave: 1932, TJ Hileman, GNP Archives – 1988, J DeSanto, U of M Library
This photo pair inspired the USGS to document glacier and landscape change using oblique photography.
Boulder Glacier Ice Cave: 1932, TJ Hileman, GNP Archives – 1988, J DeSanto, U of M Library
This photo pair inspired the USGS to document glacier and landscape change using oblique photography.
Shepard Glacier: 9/6/1913, WC Alden, USGS Photo Library – 8/21/2005, B. Reardon, USGS
Shepard Glacier: 9/6/1913, WC Alden, USGS Photo Library – 8/21/2005, B. Reardon, USGS
Sperry Glacier: circa 1930, MJ Elrod, U of M Library – 9/17/2008, L McKeon, USGS
Repeating this photo from the same photo point was impossible since the historic photo was shot from the elevated perspective of the glacier’s surface.
Sperry Glacier: circa 1930, MJ Elrod, U of M Library – 9/17/2008, L McKeon, USGS
Repeating this photo from the same photo point was impossible since the historic photo was shot from the elevated perspective of the glacier’s surface.
Grinnell and The Salamander Glaciers from the summit of Mt. Gould: 1938, TJ Hileman, GNP Archives – 9/4/2019, L McKeon, USGS
Upper Grinnell Lake has formed as the glacier has retreated. The change in height of Grinnell Glacier along the cliff face hints at volume loss during this timespan.
Grinnell and The Salamander Glaciers from the summit of Mt. Gould: 1938, TJ Hileman, GNP Archives – 9/4/2019, L McKeon, USGS
Upper Grinnell Lake has formed as the glacier has retreated. The change in height of Grinnell Glacier along the cliff face hints at volume loss during this timespan.
Swiftcurrent Glacier: circa 1910, M. Elod, GNP Archives - 9/27/2016, L McKeon, USGS
During the timespan between these photos, it is evident that Swiftcurrent Glacier has retreated and wildfire has consumed a patch of trees at the base of Swiftcurrent Mountain, the broad, beige slope in the background.
Swiftcurrent Glacier: circa 1910, M. Elod, GNP Archives - 9/27/2016, L McKeon, USGS
During the timespan between these photos, it is evident that Swiftcurrent Glacier has retreated and wildfire has consumed a patch of trees at the base of Swiftcurrent Mountain, the broad, beige slope in the background.
Logan and Red Eagle Glaciers: Aug. 1914, EC Stebinger, USGS Photo Library – 9/2/2009, L McKeon, USGS
These glaciers were once a continuous glacier, but became separate glaciers as retreat progressed.
Logan and Red Eagle Glaciers: Aug. 1914, EC Stebinger, USGS Photo Library – 9/2/2009, L McKeon, USGS
These glaciers were once a continuous glacier, but became separate glaciers as retreat progressed.
Jackson Glacier: 1912, MJ Elrod, U of M Library – 9/3/2009, L McKeon, USGS
Trees and vegetation continue to establish themselves at the base of Jackson Glacier as the glacier retreats.
Jackson Glacier: 1912, MJ Elrod, U of M Library – 9/3/2009, L McKeon, USGS
Trees and vegetation continue to establish themselves at the base of Jackson Glacier as the glacier retreats.
America has questions about climate change, and the USGS has real answers. In this episode of Climate Connections, USGS scientists answer questions gathered from the beautiful Glacier National Park in Montana. Questions include:
America has questions about climate change, and the USGS has real answers. In this episode of Climate Connections, USGS scientists answer questions gathered from the beautiful Glacier National Park in Montana. Questions include:
Below are publications associated with this project.
U.S. Geological Survey Benchmark Glacier Project
The U.S. Geological Survey Benchmark Glacier Project combines decades of direct glaciological data with remote sensing data to advance the quantitative understanding of glacier-climate interactions. The global loss of glaciers, and consequent implications for water resources, sea level rise, and ecosystem function underscores the importance of U.S. Geological Survey glaciology research to facilit
Specialized meltwater biodiversity persists despite widespread deglaciation
Parsing complex terrain controls on mountain glacier response to climate forcing
Glacier retreat in Glacier National Park, Montana
Reanalysis of the U.S. Geological Survey Benchmark Glaciers: Long-term insight into climate forcing of glacier mass balance
Glacier recession since the Little Ice Age: Implications for water storage in a Rocky Mountain landscape
Local topography increasingly influences the mass balance of a retreating cirque glacier
Glaciological measurements and mass balances from Sperry Glacier, Montana, USA, years 2005–2015
Glacier-derived August runoff in northwest Montana
Climate change links fate of glaciers and an endemic alpine invertebrate
A century of climate and ecosystem change in Western Montana: What do temperature trends portend?
Below are FAQ associated with this project.
How do we know glaciers are shrinking?
Repeat photography and aerial / satellite photo analysis provide evidence of glacier loss in terms of shape and area. The USGS Benchmark Glacier project has collected mass balance data on a network of glaciers in Alaska, Washington, and Montana for decades, quantifying trends of mass loss at all sites. Extensive field data collection at these sites includes twice yearly visits to measure seasonal...
Below are partners associated with this project.
- Overview
Glaciers on the Glacier National Park (GNP) landscape have ecological value as a source of cold meltwater in the otherwise dry late summer months, and aesthetic value as the park’s namesake features. USGS scientists have studied these glaciers since the late 1800s, building a body of research that documents widespread glacier change over the past century. Ongoing USGS research pairs long-term data with modern techniques to advance understanding of glacier physical processes, alpine ecosystem impacts, and climate linkages. By providing objective scientific monitoring, analysis, and interpretation of glacier change, the USGS helps land managers make well-informed management decisions across the Glacier National Park landscape.
WHAT IS A GLACIER? A glacier is a body of snow and ice that moves under its own weight. Glacier movement may be detected by the presence of crevasses, cracks that form in the ice as the glacier moves. All glaciers are dynamic, changing in response to temperature and precipitation – growing when winter snowfall exceeds summer melting, and shrinking when melting outpaces accumulation of new snow. Most of the glaciers in Glacier National Park are relatively small cirque glaciers, occupying alpine basins along the Continental Divide. In GNP, ice bodies are classified as glaciers when their area exceeds 0.1 km2 (100,000 m2), or about 25 acres.
TRACKING GLACIERS OVER TIME: The extensive valley glaciers that carved GNP’s majestic peaks were part of a glaciation that ended about 12,000 years ago. The smaller alpine glaciers that cling to mountainsides today have been present on the landscape since at least 6,500 years ago. These glaciers grew substantially during the Little Ice Age (LIA) that began around 1400 AD and reached their maximum size around 1850 AD. Their maximum sizes can be reconstructed from the mounds of rock and soil left behind, known as moraines. A comprehensive inventory of moraines visible in satellite imagery revealed that there were 80 glaciers (>0.1 km2) at the peak of the Little Ice Age in GNP’s boundary. Similarly, comprehensive analysis of modern glacier extent documented in satellite imagery showed that in 2005, the number of glaciers >0.1 km2 had decreased to 32. Thus, over the roughly 150 years between the mid-19th century LIA glacial maximum and the advent of the 21st century, the number of glaciers >0.1 km 2 within GNP decreased by nearly 60%.
Comprehensive inventories of glaciers across the Glacier National Park landscape include named and unnamed glaciers. Yet inspecting the subset of named glaciers alone reveals the same trend of glacier loss. This time series of glacier retreat reveals glacier loss and area reduction since 1966.
All glaciers in Glacier National Park have decreased in area, but the rates of retreat are not uniform. Studies of local topographic effects show that variations in glacier geometry, ice thickness, elevation, shading, input from avalanching, and the contribution of wind-deposited snow, likely account for each glacier’s unique rate of change.
HOW MANY GLACIERS IN GNP?
The USGS uses aerial photographs and satellite imagery to delineate glacier margins, calculate glacier area, and track glacier change in the Glacier National Park region. This approach allows for inventories that meet the needs of different stakeholder groups who are interested in different subsets and area cutoff criteria depending on their focus, interest, and needs. The table below enumerates glaciers according to different groups: named, comprehensive (including unnamed glaciers), > 0.1 km2, > 0.01 km2. The alternative 0.01 km2 size threshold includes very small glaciers in accordance with the Randolph Glacier Inventory, a global database that international scientists use to calculate ice volume and model glacier dynamics.
These distinct glacier inventories serve various scientific purposes. The “named glaciers” subset and > 0.1 km2 area cutoff remains consistent with previous USGS studies and supports inquiry focused on this recognized group of glaciers. The comprehensive “all glaciers” inventory and smaller > 0.01km2 threshold captures the spatial distribution of all glaciers in the park and can be used to estimate overall hydrologic contribution of water stored in ice.
Glacier margin time series and area change assessments are relatively straightforward to generate when adequate aerial or satellite imagery is available. However, these metrics of documenting glacier change are limited, because tracking the glacier’s footprint does not account for glacier thinning or thickening. Capturing that vertical dimension of change requires elevation data. Pairing glacier area change with glacier surface elevation change allows for volume loss estimates. This information provides researchers with a more hydrologically significant understanding of the magnitude of glacier loss in complete three dimensional space, not just at the glacier perimeter. Ongoing USGS research uses satellite imagery and photogrammetry to quantify glacier volume change across the region rather than only at individual glacier sites.
- GNP Glacier Inventory Data – digitized glacier margins derived from aerial and satellite imagery (shp files and metafile)
- Glacier Area Information Table - named glaciers of GNP and Flathead National Forest (also see PDF directly below)
WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD? Forecasting the future of glaciers involves model development. Previous USGS geospatial modeling forecast premature demise for the glaciers in Glacier National Park because these models did not account for existing ice volume and other physical factors that control glacier response to warming. More recent research led by the World Heritage Programme forecast 21st century glacier fate across United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage sites. This physical modeling predicts near total Glacier National Park glacier disappearance by 2100. USGS analysis shows that localized factors such as ice thickness, shading, and wind effects may mediate the exact timing of ice disappearance, yet the small size of the glaciers in Glacier National Park provides little buffer against a warming climate. This contrasts the modeled outcome for larger glaciers, which persist beyond 2100 in climate scenarios where greenhouse gas emissions are mitigated. Ongoing USGS research will continue to monitor the glaciers at Glacier National Park and other glacierized ecosystems in North America.
REFERENCES:
USGS Products
1. Martin-Mikle, C.J., and Fagre, D.B., 2019, Glacier recession since the Little Ice Age: Implications for water storage in a Rocky Mountain landscape: Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, v:51, p: 280-289, https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70208603.
2. Fagre, D.B., McKeon, L.A., Dick, K.A., and Fountain, A.G., 2017, Glacier margin time series (1966, 1998, 2005, 2015) of the named glaciers of Glacier National Park, MT, USA: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/F7P26WB1.
Non-USGS Products
3. Bosson, J.B., Huss, M., and Osipova, E., 2019, Disappearing world heritage glaciers as a keystone of nature conservation in a changing climate: Earth’s Future, v: 7, p: 469–479.
Related Links:
- USGS Glacier Retreat Fact Sheet
- Time series of GNP Glacier Retreat
- USGS Repeat Photography Project
- Overview of Glacier National Park’s Glaciers (NPS)
- USGS Benchmark Glaciers
- Global Land Ice Measurements from Space
- Randolph Glacier Inventory
- World Glacier Monitoring Service
- National Park Service Repeat Photography Teacher Trunk
- Science
Below are other science projects associated with this project.
Repeat Photography Project
Repeat photography provides objective visual evidence of landscape change. USGS scientists created approximately sixty repeat photography pairs that document glacier change in Glacier National Park. These photograph pairs are available as a collection hosted by the USGS Photographic Library and are publicly available for download. Modern (1997 to 2019) photographs were taken from precisely the...Science in Glacier National Park
Glacier National Park (GNP) is considered a stronghold for a large diversity of plant and animal species and harbors some of the last remaining populations of threatened and endangered species such as grizzly bear and bull trout, as well as non threatened keystone species such as bighorn sheep and black bear. The mountain ecosystems of GNP that support these species are dynamic and influenced by...Time Series of Glacier Retreat
The retreat of glaciers (see PDF at end of page) in Glacier National Park, Montana, has received widespread attention by the media, the public, and scientists because it is a clear and poignant indicator of change in the northern Rocky Mountains of the USA. In 2017, the USGS and Portland State University released a dataset which describes the areas of the 37 named glaciers in Glacier National Park...Glacier Monitoring Studies
The purpose of the CCME's glacier monitoring studies is to systematically monitor changes in Glacier National Park’s namesake glaciers and to determine the causes of changes, assess their ecological and hydrological effects, and predict future changes and effects. - Data
Below are data or web applications associated with this project.
Glaciers of Glacier National Park Repeat Photography Collection
The “Glaciers of Glacier National Park Repeat Photography Collection” is a compilation of photographs documenting the retreat of glaciers in Glacier National Park, Montana, U.S.A. (GNP) through repeat photography. The collection is comprised of 58 image pairs, resulting from twenty-two years of U.S.Geological Survey (USGS) field excursions (1997-2019) for the purpose of photographically documentinGlacier margin time series (1966, 1998, 2005, 2015) of the named glaciers of Glacier National Park, MT, USA
This dataset was created to develop a time series and history of glacier recession in Glacier National Park (GNP), Montana, USA. The dataset delineates the 1966, 1998, 2005 and 2015 perimeters of the 37 named glaciers of Glacier National Park and two additional glaciers on U.S. Forest Services Flathead National Forest land (the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex) which borders GNP to the south. Estab - Multimedia
Below are multimedia items associated with this project.
Repeat Photography GalleryRepeat Photography GalleryGrinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers in 1910 and 2016Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers in 1910 and 2016Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers: 8/9/1910 M Elrod, U of M Library – 9/27/2016 L McKeon, USGS
Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers: 8/9/1910 M Elrod, U of M Library – 9/27/2016 L McKeon, USGS
Boulder Glacier in 1910 and 2007Boulder Glacier: circa 1910 M Elrod, Glacier National Park Archives - 8/24/2007 D Fagre & G Pederson, USGS
Boulder Glacier: circa 1910 M Elrod, Glacier National Park Archives - 8/24/2007 D Fagre & G Pederson, USGS
Blackfoot & Jackson Glaciers in 1914 and 2009Blackfoot & Jackson Glaciers: 8/1/1914 EC Stebinger, USGS Photographic Library – 9/3/2009 L McKeon, USGS
Since the historic photo was taken, Blackfoot Glacier has retreated and fragmented into two separate glaciers, Blackfoot (foreground) and Jackson (distant) Glaciers.
Blackfoot & Jackson Glaciers: 8/1/1914 EC Stebinger, USGS Photographic Library – 9/3/2009 L McKeon, USGS
Since the historic photo was taken, Blackfoot Glacier has retreated and fragmented into two separate glaciers, Blackfoot (foreground) and Jackson (distant) Glaciers.
Kintla Glacier in 1901 and 2019Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers: 8/9/1910 M Elrod, U of M Library – 9/27/2016 L McKeon, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Grinnell, Gem & Salamander Glaciers: 8/9/1910 M Elrod, U of M Library – 9/27/2016 L McKeon, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Agassiz Glacier in 1913 and 2007Agassiz Glacier: 8/5/1913 WC Alden, USGS Photographic Library - 8/24/2007, D Fagre, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Agassiz Glacier: 8/5/1913 WC Alden, USGS Photographic Library - 8/24/2007, D Fagre, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Chaney Glacier 1911 and 2005Chaney Glacier: 1911, MR Campbell, USGS Photographic Library – 8/19/2005 Karen Milone, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Chaney Glacier: 1911, MR Campbell, USGS Photographic Library – 8/19/2005 Karen Milone, USGS
View the full collection at USGS Photographic Library
Boulder Ice Cave Glacier 1932 and 1988Boulder Glacier Ice Cave: 1932, TJ Hileman, GNP Archives – 1988, J DeSanto, U of M Library
This photo pair inspired the USGS to document glacier and landscape change using oblique photography.
Boulder Glacier Ice Cave: 1932, TJ Hileman, GNP Archives – 1988, J DeSanto, U of M Library
This photo pair inspired the USGS to document glacier and landscape change using oblique photography.
Shepard Glacier in 1913 and 2005Shepard Glacier: 9/6/1913, WC Alden, USGS Photo Library – 8/21/2005, B. Reardon, USGS
Shepard Glacier: 9/6/1913, WC Alden, USGS Photo Library – 8/21/2005, B. Reardon, USGS
Sperry Glacier in about 1930 and 2008Sperry Glacier: circa 1930, MJ Elrod, U of M Library – 9/17/2008, L McKeon, USGS
Repeating this photo from the same photo point was impossible since the historic photo was shot from the elevated perspective of the glacier’s surface.
Sperry Glacier: circa 1930, MJ Elrod, U of M Library – 9/17/2008, L McKeon, USGS
Repeating this photo from the same photo point was impossible since the historic photo was shot from the elevated perspective of the glacier’s surface.
Grinnell Glacier from 1938 and 2019Grinnell and The Salamander Glaciers from the summit of Mt. Gould: 1938, TJ Hileman, GNP Archives – 9/4/2019, L McKeon, USGS
Upper Grinnell Lake has formed as the glacier has retreated. The change in height of Grinnell Glacier along the cliff face hints at volume loss during this timespan.
Grinnell and The Salamander Glaciers from the summit of Mt. Gould: 1938, TJ Hileman, GNP Archives – 9/4/2019, L McKeon, USGS
Upper Grinnell Lake has formed as the glacier has retreated. The change in height of Grinnell Glacier along the cliff face hints at volume loss during this timespan.
Swiftcurrent Glacier in 1910 and 2016Swiftcurrent Glacier: circa 1910, M. Elod, GNP Archives - 9/27/2016, L McKeon, USGS
During the timespan between these photos, it is evident that Swiftcurrent Glacier has retreated and wildfire has consumed a patch of trees at the base of Swiftcurrent Mountain, the broad, beige slope in the background.
Swiftcurrent Glacier: circa 1910, M. Elod, GNP Archives - 9/27/2016, L McKeon, USGS
During the timespan between these photos, it is evident that Swiftcurrent Glacier has retreated and wildfire has consumed a patch of trees at the base of Swiftcurrent Mountain, the broad, beige slope in the background.
Logan and Red Eagle Glaciers in 1914 and 2009Logan and Red Eagle Glaciers: Aug. 1914, EC Stebinger, USGS Photo Library – 9/2/2009, L McKeon, USGS
These glaciers were once a continuous glacier, but became separate glaciers as retreat progressed.
Logan and Red Eagle Glaciers: Aug. 1914, EC Stebinger, USGS Photo Library – 9/2/2009, L McKeon, USGS
These glaciers were once a continuous glacier, but became separate glaciers as retreat progressed.
Jackson Glacier in 1912 and 2009Jackson Glacier: 1912, MJ Elrod, U of M Library – 9/3/2009, L McKeon, USGS
Trees and vegetation continue to establish themselves at the base of Jackson Glacier as the glacier retreats.
Jackson Glacier: 1912, MJ Elrod, U of M Library – 9/3/2009, L McKeon, USGS
Trees and vegetation continue to establish themselves at the base of Jackson Glacier as the glacier retreats.
Climate Connections: Questions from Glacier National Park, MT (Ep 4)Climate Connections: Questions from Glacier National Park, MT (Ep 4)Climate Connections: Questions from Glacier National Park, MT (Ep 4)America has questions about climate change, and the USGS has real answers. In this episode of Climate Connections, USGS scientists answer questions gathered from the beautiful Glacier National Park in Montana. Questions include:
America has questions about climate change, and the USGS has real answers. In this episode of Climate Connections, USGS scientists answer questions gathered from the beautiful Glacier National Park in Montana. Questions include:
- Publications
Below are publications associated with this project.
U.S. Geological Survey Benchmark Glacier Project
The U.S. Geological Survey Benchmark Glacier Project combines decades of direct glaciological data with remote sensing data to advance the quantitative understanding of glacier-climate interactions. The global loss of glaciers, and consequent implications for water resources, sea level rise, and ecosystem function underscores the importance of U.S. Geological Survey glaciology research to facilit
AuthorsCaitlyn Florentine, Lisa L. MckeonSpecialized meltwater biodiversity persists despite widespread deglaciation
Glaciers are important drivers of environmental heterogeneity and biological diversity across mountain landscapes. Worldwide, glaciers are receding rapidly due to climate change, with important consequences for biodiversity in mountain ecosystems. However, the effects of glacier loss on biodiversity have never been quantified across a mountainous region, primarily due to a lack of adequate data atAuthorsClint C. Muhlfeld, Timothy Joseph Cline, J. Joseph Giersch, Erich Peitzsch, Caitlyn Florentine, Dean Jacobsen, Scott HotalingParsing complex terrain controls on mountain glacier response to climate forcing
Glaciers are a key indicator of changing climate in the high mountain landscape. Glacier variations across a mountain range are ultimately driven by regional climate forcing. However, changes also reflect local, topographically driven processes such as snow avalanching, snow wind-drifting, and radiation shading as well as the initial glacier conditions such as hypsometry and ice thickness. Here weAuthorsCaitlyn Elizabeth Florentine, Joel T. Harper, Daniel B. FagreGlacier retreat in Glacier National Park, Montana
Currently, the volume of land ice on Earth is decreasing, driving consequential changes to global sea level and local stream habitat. Glacier retreat in Glacier National Park, Montana, U.S.A., is one example of land ice loss and glacier change. The U.S. Geological Survey Benchmark Glacier Project conducts glaciological research and collects field measurements across select North American glaciers,AuthorsCaitlyn FlorentineReanalysis of the U.S. Geological Survey Benchmark Glaciers: Long-term insight into climate forcing of glacier mass balance
Mountain glaciers integrate climate processes to provide an unmatched signal of regional climate forcing. However, extracting the climate signal via intercomparison of regional glacier mass balance records can be problematic when methods for extrapolating and calibrating direct glaciological measurements are mixed or inconsistent. To address this problem, we reanalyzed and compared long-term massAuthorsShad O'Neel, Christopher J. McNeil, Louis C. Sass, Caitlyn Florentine, Emily Baker, Erich Peitzsch, Daniel J McGrath, Andrew G. Fountain, Daniel B. FagreGlacier recession since the Little Ice Age: Implications for water storage in a Rocky Mountain landscape
Glacial ice is a significant influence on local climate, hydrology, vegetation, and wildlife. We mapped a complete set of glacier areas from the Little Ice Age (LIA) using very high-resolution satellite imagery (30-cm) within Glacier National Park, a region that encompasses over 400,000 hectares. We measured glacier change across the park using LIA glacier area as a baseline and used this to estimAuthorsChelsea Mikle, Daniel B. FagreLocal topography increasingly influences the mass balance of a retreating cirque glacier
Local topographically driven processes – such as wind drifting, avalanching, and shading – are known to alter the relationship between the mass balance of small cirque glaciers and regional climate. Yet partitioning such local effects from regional climate influence has proven difficult, creating uncertainty in the climate representativeness of some glaciers. We address this problem for Sperry GlaAuthorsCaitlyn Florentine, Joel T. Harper, Daniel B. Fagre, Johnnie Moore, Erich H. PeitzschGlaciological measurements and mass balances from Sperry Glacier, Montana, USA, years 2005–2015
Glacier mass balance measurements help to provide an understanding of the behavior of glaciers and their response to local and regional climate. In 2005 the United States Geological Survey established a surface mass balance monitoring program on Sperry Glacier, Montana, USA. This project is the first quantitative study of mass changes of a glacier in the US northern Rocky Mountains and continues tAuthorsAdam Clark, Daniel B. Fagre, Erich H. Peitzsch, Blase A. Reardon, Joel T. HarperGlacier-derived August runoff in northwest Montana
The second largest concentration of glaciers in the U.S. Rocky Mountains is located in Glacier National Park (GNP), Montana. The total glacier-covered area in this region decreased by ∼35% over the past 50 years, which has raised substantial concern about the loss of the water derived from glaciers during the summer. We used an innovative weather station design to collect in situ measurements on fAuthorsAdam Clark, Joel T. Harper, Daniel B. FagreClimate change links fate of glaciers and an endemic alpine invertebrate
Climate warming in the mid- to high-latitudes and high-elevation mountainous regions is occurring more rapidly than anywhere else on Earth, causing extensive loss of glaciers and snowpack. However, little is known about the effects of climate change on alpine stream biota, especially invertebrates. Here, we show a strong linkage between regional climate change and the fundamental niche of a rare aAuthorsClint C. Muhlfeld, J. Joseph Giersch, F. Richard Hauer, Gregory T. Pederson, Gordon Luikart, Douglas P. Peterson, Christopher C. Downs, Daniel B. FagreA century of climate and ecosystem change in Western Montana: What do temperature trends portend?
The physical science linking human-induced increases in greenhouse gasses to the warming of the global climate system is well established, but the implications of this warming for ecosystem processes and services at regional scales is still poorly understood. Thus, the objectives of this work were to: (1) describe rates of change in temperature averages and extremes for western Montana, a region cAuthorsG.T. Pederson, L.J. Graumlich, D.B. Fagre, T. Kipfer, C.C. Muhlfeld - FAQ
Below are FAQ associated with this project.
How do we know glaciers are shrinking?
Repeat photography and aerial / satellite photo analysis provide evidence of glacier loss in terms of shape and area. The USGS Benchmark Glacier project has collected mass balance data on a network of glaciers in Alaska, Washington, and Montana for decades, quantifying trends of mass loss at all sites. Extensive field data collection at these sites includes twice yearly visits to measure seasonal...
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