Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB): Trout Lake Active
USGS initiated the Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) program to understand the processes controlling water, energy, and biogeochemical fluxes over a range of temporal and spatial scales, and the effects of atmospheric and climatic variables. Trout Lake is one of five small, geographically and ecologically diverse watersheds representing a range of hydrologic and climatic conditions.
SITE DESCRIPTION
The Trout Lake WEBB site is in the Northern Highland area of north-central Wisconsin. The site includes five open lakes and two bog lakes. It is also the site of the NSF-sponsored North Temperate Lakes Long-Term Ecological Research (NTL/LTER) project, which has been ongoing since 1980 under the direction of the Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. The WEBB hydrologic and biogeochemical research in the LTER lake watersheds complements the ecological research conducted at the NTL/LTER, which is focused on in-lake processes. In this sparsely populated area, many lakes have totally forested watersheds and no private frontage.
Geologic features of the area are dominated by a sandy outwash plain consisting of 30 to 50 meters of unconsolidated sand and coarser till overlying Precambrian igneous bedrock. The predominant soils are thin forest soils with high organic content in the uppermost horizon. The site is representative of the glacial lake districts common to the upper Midwest and Canada, but certain individual characteristics distinguish it from other nearby lake areas. Among the most important of these characteristics is glacial drift that is virtually carbonate free; as a result, the ground-water chemistry is almost entirely controlled by silicate hydrolysis.
Most of the lakes in the Northern Highland area are seepage lakes--they have no surface-water inlets or outlets. Water budgets are thus dominated by direct precipitation, ground-water flow, and evapotranspiration. The seven study lakes, four of which are seepage lakes, are all in the same ground-water-flow system. Lakes in topographic highs, such as the two bog lakes and Crystal Lake, receive little ground-water flow and no streamflow and have water with low ionic concentrations (10 to 20 microSiemens per centimeter, mS/cm). Lakes in topographic lows, such as Trout Lake, are dominated by ground-water and stream inputs and have water with higher ionic concentrations (70 to 90 mS/cm). Although linked by a common ground-water-flow system and similar climate, the lakes represent a broad range of size, morphometry, habitat, thermal features, chemistry, biological productivity, and species composition.
RESEARCH AREAS
Rainfall, Streamflow, and Recharge Processes
Objectives:
- Investigate the processes controlling streamflow generation in response to rainfall for low-relief hydrologic settings.
- Investigate the processes that lead to ground-water recharge in the TL basin.
- Develop appropriate predictive capabilities for the identified streamflow-generation and ground-water-recharge processes.
- Investigate the implications of increases in spatial and temporal scale on the predictive capabilities.
Approach:
- Use stable isotopes of water (oxygen-18 and deuterium) to identify streamflow-generation mechanisms by examining the isotopic evolution of water as in moves through the hydrologic system. Three detailed hillslope sites along Allequash Creek are instrumented with nested piezometers, lysimeters and bulk rainfall and throughfall collectors.
Groundwater/Surface Water Interactions
Objectives:
- Determine the water and solute yields for the Trout Lake Basin and determine the relative importance of streamflow to the water and solute budgets for Trout Lake.
- Identify the geochemical processes that control the flux of major chemical species (such as nitrogen and sulfur species) at the aquifer-lake and aquifer-stream interfaces, and the temporal and spatial variability of these processes.
Approach:
- Streams tributary to Trout Lake are sampled periodically to allow the computation of solute fluxes from streams into and out of Trout Lake. The samples are analyzed for nutrients and major ions. The importance of surface-water sources to the complete hydrologic and chemical budget of Trout Lake is being determined from the estimated surface-water fluxes and the existing NTL/LTER data base.
- Processes that control the mass flux of chemical species across the stream interface are being identified by means of fine-scale sampling (that is, less than 1 centimeter, cm). The samples are collected at various times of the year at two locations along Allequash Creek. Samples are also collected periodically from a detailed transect along Allequash Creek to determine larger-scale variations.
Carbon Flux Processes
Objectives:
- Identify the processes that control the flux of major carbon species (such as dissolved inorganic carbon, dissolved organic carbon, carbon dioxide and methane) within the Allequash Creek watershed, and the temporal and spatial variability of these processes.
Approach:
- Carbon fluxes are being estimated through periodoc sampling of various system components (see carbon flux schematic for details), and measured directly for soil effux using soil chambers. A variety of land cover and slope/aspect combinations are being sampled to help pinpoint the spatial variability.
Below are publications associated with this project.
Field Techniques for Estimating Water Fluxes Between Surface Water and Ground Water
Comparison of total mercury and methylmercury cycling at five sites using the small watershed approach
Importance of unsaturated zone flow for simulating recharge in a humid climate
Identifying spatial variability of groundwater discharge in a wetland stream using a distributed temperature sensor
Dynamics of CFCs in northern temperate lakes and adjacent groundwater
Water and solute mass balance of five small, relatively undisturbed watersheds in the U.S.
Measuring groundwater-surface water interaction and its effect on wetland stream benthic productivity, Trout Lake watershed, northern Wisconsin, USA
The importance of diverse data types to calibrate a watershed model of the Trout Lake Basin, Northern Wisconsin, USA
Estimating recharge rates with analytic element models and parameter estimation
Simulating ground water-lake interactions: Approaches and insights
Using high hydraulic conductivity nodes to simulate seepage lakes
Trout Lake, Wisconsin: A water, energy, and biogeochemical budgets program site
Below are news stories associated with this project.
Below are partners associated with this project.
- Overview
USGS initiated the Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) program to understand the processes controlling water, energy, and biogeochemical fluxes over a range of temporal and spatial scales, and the effects of atmospheric and climatic variables. Trout Lake is one of five small, geographically and ecologically diverse watersheds representing a range of hydrologic and climatic conditions.
SITE DESCRIPTION
The Trout Lake WEBB site is in the Northern Highland area of north-central Wisconsin. The site includes five open lakes and two bog lakes. It is also the site of the NSF-sponsored North Temperate Lakes Long-Term Ecological Research (NTL/LTER) project, which has been ongoing since 1980 under the direction of the Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. The WEBB hydrologic and biogeochemical research in the LTER lake watersheds complements the ecological research conducted at the NTL/LTER, which is focused on in-lake processes. In this sparsely populated area, many lakes have totally forested watersheds and no private frontage.
Geologic features of the area are dominated by a sandy outwash plain consisting of 30 to 50 meters of unconsolidated sand and coarser till overlying Precambrian igneous bedrock. The predominant soils are thin forest soils with high organic content in the uppermost horizon. The site is representative of the glacial lake districts common to the upper Midwest and Canada, but certain individual characteristics distinguish it from other nearby lake areas. Among the most important of these characteristics is glacial drift that is virtually carbonate free; as a result, the ground-water chemistry is almost entirely controlled by silicate hydrolysis.
Most of the lakes in the Northern Highland area are seepage lakes--they have no surface-water inlets or outlets. Water budgets are thus dominated by direct precipitation, ground-water flow, and evapotranspiration. The seven study lakes, four of which are seepage lakes, are all in the same ground-water-flow system. Lakes in topographic highs, such as the two bog lakes and Crystal Lake, receive little ground-water flow and no streamflow and have water with low ionic concentrations (10 to 20 microSiemens per centimeter, mS/cm). Lakes in topographic lows, such as Trout Lake, are dominated by ground-water and stream inputs and have water with higher ionic concentrations (70 to 90 mS/cm). Although linked by a common ground-water-flow system and similar climate, the lakes represent a broad range of size, morphometry, habitat, thermal features, chemistry, biological productivity, and species composition.
RESEARCH AREAS
Rainfall, Streamflow, and Recharge Processes
Objectives:
- Investigate the processes controlling streamflow generation in response to rainfall for low-relief hydrologic settings.
- Investigate the processes that lead to ground-water recharge in the TL basin.
- Develop appropriate predictive capabilities for the identified streamflow-generation and ground-water-recharge processes.
- Investigate the implications of increases in spatial and temporal scale on the predictive capabilities.
Approach:
- Use stable isotopes of water (oxygen-18 and deuterium) to identify streamflow-generation mechanisms by examining the isotopic evolution of water as in moves through the hydrologic system. Three detailed hillslope sites along Allequash Creek are instrumented with nested piezometers, lysimeters and bulk rainfall and throughfall collectors.
Groundwater/Surface Water Interactions
Objectives:
- Determine the water and solute yields for the Trout Lake Basin and determine the relative importance of streamflow to the water and solute budgets for Trout Lake.
- Identify the geochemical processes that control the flux of major chemical species (such as nitrogen and sulfur species) at the aquifer-lake and aquifer-stream interfaces, and the temporal and spatial variability of these processes.
Approach:
- Streams tributary to Trout Lake are sampled periodically to allow the computation of solute fluxes from streams into and out of Trout Lake. The samples are analyzed for nutrients and major ions. The importance of surface-water sources to the complete hydrologic and chemical budget of Trout Lake is being determined from the estimated surface-water fluxes and the existing NTL/LTER data base.
- Processes that control the mass flux of chemical species across the stream interface are being identified by means of fine-scale sampling (that is, less than 1 centimeter, cm). The samples are collected at various times of the year at two locations along Allequash Creek. Samples are also collected periodically from a detailed transect along Allequash Creek to determine larger-scale variations.
Carbon Flux Processes
Objectives:
- Identify the processes that control the flux of major carbon species (such as dissolved inorganic carbon, dissolved organic carbon, carbon dioxide and methane) within the Allequash Creek watershed, and the temporal and spatial variability of these processes.
Approach:
- Carbon fluxes are being estimated through periodoc sampling of various system components (see carbon flux schematic for details), and measured directly for soil effux using soil chambers. A variety of land cover and slope/aspect combinations are being sampled to help pinpoint the spatial variability.
- Publications
Below are publications associated with this project.
Filter Total Items: 32Field Techniques for Estimating Water Fluxes Between Surface Water and Ground Water
This report focuses on measuring the flow of water across the interface between surface water and ground water, rather than the hydrogeological or geochemical processes that occur at or near this interface. The methods, however, that use hydrogeological and geochemical evidence to quantify water fluxes are described herein. This material is presented as a guide for those who have to examine the inAuthorsDonald O. Rosenberry, James W. LaBaughComparison of total mercury and methylmercury cycling at five sites using the small watershed approach
The small watershed approach is well-suited but underutilized in mercury research. We applied the small watershed approach to investigate total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) dynamics in streamwater at the five diverse forested headwater catchments of the US Geological Survey Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) program. At all sites, baseflow THg was generally less than 1 ng LAuthorsJ. B. Shanley, Mast M. Alisa, K. Campbell, G. R. Aiken, D. P. Krabbenhoft, R. J. Hunt, J.F. Walker, P. F. Schuster, A. Chalmers, Brent T. Aulenbach, N.E. Peters, M. Marvin-DiPasquale, D. W. Clow, M.M. ShaferImportance of unsaturated zone flow for simulating recharge in a humid climate
Transient recharge to the water table is often not well understood or quantified. Two approaches for simulating transient recharge in a ground water flow model were investigated using the Trout Lake watershed in north-central Wisconsin: (1) a traditional approach of adding recharge directly to the water table and (2) routing the same volume of water through an unsaturated zone column to the waterAuthorsR. J. Hunt, David E. Prudic, J.F. Walker, M.P. AndersonIdentifying spatial variability of groundwater discharge in a wetland stream using a distributed temperature sensor
Discrete zones of groundwater discharge in a stream within a peat‐dominated wetland were identified on the basis of variations in streambed temperature using a distributed temperature sensor (DTS). The DTS gives measurements of the spatial (±1 m) and temporal (15 min) variation of streambed temperature over a much larger reach of stream (>800 m) than previous methods. Isolated temperature anomalieAuthorsChristopher S. Lowry, John F. Walker, Randall J. Hunt, Mary P. AndersonDynamics of CFCs in northern temperate lakes and adjacent groundwater
Three dimictic lakes and one meromictic lake in and near the Trout Lake, Wisconsin, watershed were sampled to determine the variation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) concentrations within the lakes. The lakes were sampled during stratified conditions, during fall turnover, and during ice cover. The results demonstrate a considerable variation in CFC concentrations and corresponding atmospheric mixingAuthorsJohn F. Walker, David A. Saad, Randall J. HuntWater and solute mass balance of five small, relatively undisturbed watersheds in the U.S.
Geochemical mass balances were computed for water years 1992-1997 (October 1991 through September 1997) for the five watersheds of the U.S. Geological Survey Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) Program to determine the primary regional controls on yields of the major dissolved inorganic solutes. The sites, which vary markedly with respect to climate, geology, physiography, and ecologyAuthorsN.E. Peters, J. B. Shanley, Brent T. Aulenbach, R. M. Webb, K. Campbell, R. Hunt, M. C. Larsen, R.F. Stallard, J. Troester, J.F. WalkerMeasuring groundwater-surface water interaction and its effect on wetland stream benthic productivity, Trout Lake watershed, northern Wisconsin, USA
Measurements of groundwater-surface water exchange at three wetland stream sites were related to patterns in benthic productivity as part of the US Geological Survey's Northern Temperate Lakes-Water, Energy and Biogeochemical Budgets (NTL-WEBB) project. The three sites included one high groundwater discharge (HGD) site, one weak groundwater discharge (WGD) site, and one groundwater recharge (GR) sAuthorsR. J. Hunt, M. Strand, J.F. WalkerThe importance of diverse data types to calibrate a watershed model of the Trout Lake Basin, Northern Wisconsin, USA
As part of the USGS Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets project and the NSF Long-Term Ecological Research work, a parameter estimation code was used to calibrate a deterministic groundwater flow model of the Trout Lake Basin in northern Wisconsin. Observations included traditional calibration targets (head, lake stage, and baseflow observations) as well as unconventional targets such as grouAuthorsR. J. Hunt, D. T. Feinstein, C.D. Pint, M.P. AndersonEstimating recharge rates with analytic element models and parameter estimation
Quantifying the spatial and temporal distribution of recharge is usually a prerequisite for effective ground water flow modeling. In this study, an analytic element (AE) code (GFLOW) was used with a nonlinear parameter estimation code (UCODE) to quantify the spatial and temporal distribution of recharge using measured base flows as calibration targets. The ease and flexibility of AE model construcAuthorsW. R. Dripps, R. J. Hunt, M.P. AndersonSimulating ground water-lake interactions: Approaches and insights
Approaches for modeling lake-ground water interactions have evolved significantly from early simulations that used fixed lake stages specified as constant head to sophisticated LAK packages for MODFLOW. Although model input can be complex, the LAK package capabilities and output are superior to methods that rely on a fixed lake stage and compare well to other simple methods where lake stage can beAuthorsR. J. Hunt, H.M. Haitjema, J. T. Krohelski, D. T. FeinsteinUsing high hydraulic conductivity nodes to simulate seepage lakes
In a typical ground water flow model, lakes are represented by specified head nodes requiring that lake levels be known a priori. To remove this limitation, previous researchers assigned high hydraulic conductivity (K) values to nodes that represent a lake, under the assumption that the simulated head at the nodes in the high-K zone accurately reflects lake level. The solution should also produceAuthorsMary P. Anderson, Randall J. Hunt, James T. Krohelski, Kuopo ChungTrout Lake, Wisconsin: A water, energy, and biogeochemical budgets program site
The Trout Lake Watershed is in the Northern Highlands Lake District in north-central Wisconsin. The study area includes four subbasins with five lakes and two bog lakes. The objectives of the Trout Lake WEBB project are to (1) describe processes controlling water and solute fluxes in the Trout Lake watershed, (2) examine interactions among those processes and (3) improve the capability to predictAuthorsJohn F. Walker, Thomas D. Bullen - News
Below are news stories associated with this project.
- Partners
Below are partners associated with this project.