Map of U.S. showing karst areas, which are prone to land subsidence and sinkholes.
What is a sinkhole?
A sinkhole is a depression in the ground that has no natural external surface drainage. Basically, this means that when it rains, all of the water stays inside the sinkhole and typically drains into the subsurface.
Sinkholes are most common in what geologists call, “karst terrain.” These are regions where the types of rock below the land surface can naturally be dissolved by groundwater circulating through them. Soluble rocks include salt beds and domes, gypsum, limestone and other carbonate rock. Florida, for instance, is an area largely underlain by limestone and is highly susceptible to sinkholes.
When water from rainfall moves down through the soil, these types of rock begin to dissolve. This creates underground spaces and caverns.
Sinkholes are dramatic because the land usually stays intact for a period of time until the underground spaces just get too big. If there is not enough support for the land above the spaces, then a sudden collapse of the land surface can occur.
Learn more: USGS Water Science School - Sinkholes
Related Content
How many sinkholes open up in a year?
There is no database of sinkhole collapses for the United States, so these data are unavailable. Some individual state geologic surveys track reported collapses within their state. Many sinkhole collapses are not reported to authorities or news organizations, and many occur in rural areas where they are unobserved. Learn more: USGS Water Science School - Sinkholes
How much does sinkhole damage cost each year in the United States?
Sinkhole damages over the last 15 years cost on average at least $300 million per year. Since there is no national tracking of sinkhole damage costs, this estimate is probably much lower than the actual cost. Learn more: USGS Water Science School - Sinkholes
What is the difference between a sinkhole and a pothole?
A sinkhole is a closed natural depression in the ground surface caused by removal of material below the ground and either collapse or gradual subsidence of the surface into the resulting void. A pothole is usually a fairly small feature caused by failure of paving materials, usually associated with roads, parking lots, and airports. In the colder parts of the country, potholes become more abundant...
What is the difference between a sinkhole and land subsidence?
Sinkholes are just one of many forms of ground collapse, or subsidence. Land subsidence is a gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface owing to subsurface movement of earth materials. The principal causes of land subsidence are aquifer-system compaction, drainage of organic soils, underground mining, hydrocompaction, natural compaction, sinkholes, and thawing permafrost. Land...
What is the largest sinkhole in the United States?
There are some very large, ancient, ‘inactive’ sinkholes in some areas of the U.S. that are thousands of years old. Alabama claims to have the largest recent collapse sinkhole. It is called the “Golly Hole” and is located in Shelby County in the central part of the state. It collapsed suddenly in 1972. The sinkhole is about 325 feet long, 300 feet wide, and 120 feet deep. Learn more: USGS Water...
Why are there no entries for caves in the Geographic Names Information System database?
Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) does include caves but the entries are not publicly available. In response to the 1988 National Cave Management Resources Act, Department of the Interior Regulation 43 (CFR Subtitle A, Part 37) forbids the release of information regarding the location of all caves on Federal lands. Currently, GNIS does not distinguish between features on Federal versus...
I have (or think I have) a sinkhole on my property. What should I do?
While the USGS studies the types of rocks that can potentially form sinkholes, we don’t investigate individual sinkholes on private property. First, rule out human causes for your feature. Some sinkholes are caused by leaky underground pipes (talk to your utility company) and some are old construction pits or other buried materials that have settled. If you’re confident of a natural cause for your...
Map of U.S. showing karst areas, which are prone to land subsidence and sinkholes.
This webinar was conducted as part of the Climate Change Science and Management Webinar Series, co-hosted by the USGS National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center and the FWS National Conservation Training Center.
This webinar was conducted as part of the Climate Change Science and Management Webinar Series, co-hosted by the USGS National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center and the FWS National Conservation Training Center.
Randall Orndorff, Director of the Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center, discusses how Karst affects daily life. Beneath a quarter of the United States are rock types that can dissolve to form caves, sinkholes and other features. Nearly every state has rock layers of limestone, gypsum, and other soluble rocks we call ‘karst’.
Randall Orndorff, Director of the Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center, discusses how Karst affects daily life. Beneath a quarter of the United States are rock types that can dissolve to form caves, sinkholes and other features. Nearly every state has rock layers of limestone, gypsum, and other soluble rocks we call ‘karst’.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
Cracking along exterior walls is a sign of subsidence activity. Such severe structural damage from sinkholes can destroy homes and other structures.
Cracking along exterior walls is a sign of subsidence activity. Such severe structural damage from sinkholes can destroy homes and other structures.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
The entire root perimeter of this tree collapsed in response to subsidence activity. More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures.
The entire root perimeter of this tree collapsed in response to subsidence activity. More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures.
Sinkholes affect roadway safety and require constant maintenance and monitoring. More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures.
Sinkholes affect roadway safety and require constant maintenance and monitoring. More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
Listen to hear the answer.
A huge sinkhole in Texas begs a few questions about this fascinating and sometimes hazardous phenomenon, so we sit down with USGS geologist Randy Orndorff to learn more.
A huge sinkhole in Texas begs a few questions about this fascinating and sometimes hazardous phenomenon, so we sit down with USGS geologist Randy Orndorff to learn more.
Observing the small amount of flow going into Dover Sink.
Observing the small amount of flow going into Dover Sink.
Monitoring levels at Gator Sink.
Monitoring levels at Gator Sink.
Crevasses Sink spans approximately 25 ft across the river bed.
Crevasses Sink spans approximately 25 ft across the river bed.
Photo 15 of 15: Water level in sinkhole chimney stabilized since the previous day. View to south across the sinhole.
Photo 15 of 15: Water level in sinkhole chimney stabilized since the previous day. View to south across the sinhole.
Photo 5 of 15: House in a sinkhole. View to east across the sinkhole.
Photo 5 of 15: House in a sinkhole. View to east across the sinkhole.
Photo 6 of 15: Sinkhole chimney at approximately 12 noon. View to south across the sinkhole.
Photo 6 of 15: Sinkhole chimney at approximately 12 noon. View to south across the sinkhole.
Photo 12 of 15: Water level has risen and is now apparent in sinkhole since pool collapse and house swallowed. View to south across the sinkhole. The rising water level is likely a result of the debris plugging the conduit into the Floridan aquifer. Water level is rising to assume a position more consistent with that of the surficial aquifer. (3 p.m.)
Photo 12 of 15: Water level has risen and is now apparent in sinkhole since pool collapse and house swallowed. View to south across the sinkhole. The rising water level is likely a result of the debris plugging the conduit into the Floridan aquifer. Water level is rising to assume a position more consistent with that of the surficial aquifer. (3 p.m.)
Cover-collapse sinkhole in limestone near Frederick, Maryland (September 2003). Many sinkholes occur along highways where rainwater runoff is concentrated into storm drains and ditches increasing the rate of sinkhole development (note the sewer drain pipe beneath roadway).
Cover-collapse sinkhole in limestone near Frederick, Maryland (September 2003). Many sinkholes occur along highways where rainwater runoff is concentrated into storm drains and ditches increasing the rate of sinkhole development (note the sewer drain pipe beneath roadway).
Prairie Pothole Region landscape showing high wetland density.
Prairie Pothole Region landscape showing high wetland density.
U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, October 19–20, 2021
Effects of projected climate (2011–50) on karst hydrology and species vulnerability—Edwards aquifer, south-central Texas, and Madison aquifer, western South Dakota
Karst in the United States: A digital map compilation and database
Sinkholes
Land subsidence in the United States
Land subsidence in the United States
Karst topography; computer animations and paper model
Geology of caves
Development of sinkholes resulting from man's activities in the Eastern United States
Formation of solution-subsidence sinkholes above salt beds
Related Content
- FAQ
How many sinkholes open up in a year?
There is no database of sinkhole collapses for the United States, so these data are unavailable. Some individual state geologic surveys track reported collapses within their state. Many sinkhole collapses are not reported to authorities or news organizations, and many occur in rural areas where they are unobserved. Learn more: USGS Water Science School - Sinkholes
How much does sinkhole damage cost each year in the United States?
Sinkhole damages over the last 15 years cost on average at least $300 million per year. Since there is no national tracking of sinkhole damage costs, this estimate is probably much lower than the actual cost. Learn more: USGS Water Science School - Sinkholes
What is the difference between a sinkhole and a pothole?
A sinkhole is a closed natural depression in the ground surface caused by removal of material below the ground and either collapse or gradual subsidence of the surface into the resulting void. A pothole is usually a fairly small feature caused by failure of paving materials, usually associated with roads, parking lots, and airports. In the colder parts of the country, potholes become more abundant...
What is the difference between a sinkhole and land subsidence?
Sinkholes are just one of many forms of ground collapse, or subsidence. Land subsidence is a gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface owing to subsurface movement of earth materials. The principal causes of land subsidence are aquifer-system compaction, drainage of organic soils, underground mining, hydrocompaction, natural compaction, sinkholes, and thawing permafrost. Land...
What is the largest sinkhole in the United States?
There are some very large, ancient, ‘inactive’ sinkholes in some areas of the U.S. that are thousands of years old. Alabama claims to have the largest recent collapse sinkhole. It is called the “Golly Hole” and is located in Shelby County in the central part of the state. It collapsed suddenly in 1972. The sinkhole is about 325 feet long, 300 feet wide, and 120 feet deep. Learn more: USGS Water...
Why are there no entries for caves in the Geographic Names Information System database?
Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) does include caves but the entries are not publicly available. In response to the 1988 National Cave Management Resources Act, Department of the Interior Regulation 43 (CFR Subtitle A, Part 37) forbids the release of information regarding the location of all caves on Federal lands. Currently, GNIS does not distinguish between features on Federal versus...
I have (or think I have) a sinkhole on my property. What should I do?
While the USGS studies the types of rocks that can potentially form sinkholes, we don’t investigate individual sinkholes on private property. First, rule out human causes for your feature. Some sinkholes are caused by leaky underground pipes (talk to your utility company) and some are old construction pits or other buried materials that have settled. If you’re confident of a natural cause for your...
- Multimedia
Karst landscapes are more prone to have land subsidence and sinkholes.Karst landscapes are more prone to have land subsidence and sinkholes.
Map of U.S. showing karst areas, which are prone to land subsidence and sinkholes.
Map of U.S. showing karst areas, which are prone to land subsidence and sinkholes.
Karst, Critters, and Climate ChangeThis webinar was conducted as part of the Climate Change Science and Management Webinar Series, co-hosted by the USGS National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center and the FWS National Conservation Training Center.
This webinar was conducted as part of the Climate Change Science and Management Webinar Series, co-hosted by the USGS National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center and the FWS National Conservation Training Center.
An Unseen World Beneath Our Feet - Caves, Sinkholes and SpringsAn Unseen World Beneath Our Feet - Caves, Sinkholes and SpringsRandall Orndorff, Director of the Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center, discusses how Karst affects daily life. Beneath a quarter of the United States are rock types that can dissolve to form caves, sinkholes and other features. Nearly every state has rock layers of limestone, gypsum, and other soluble rocks we call ‘karst’.
Randall Orndorff, Director of the Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center, discusses how Karst affects daily life. Beneath a quarter of the United States are rock types that can dissolve to form caves, sinkholes and other features. Nearly every state has rock layers of limestone, gypsum, and other soluble rocks we call ‘karst’.
Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
Sinkhole Activity Damages Home.Cracking along exterior walls is a sign of subsidence activity. Such severe structural damage from sinkholes can destroy homes and other structures.
Cracking along exterior walls is a sign of subsidence activity. Such severe structural damage from sinkholes can destroy homes and other structures.
Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010The entire root perimeter of this tree collapsed in response to subsidence activity. More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures.
The entire root perimeter of this tree collapsed in response to subsidence activity. More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures.
Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010Sinkholes affect roadway safety and require constant maintenance and monitoring. More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures.
Sinkholes affect roadway safety and require constant maintenance and monitoring. More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures.
Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010Sinkholes in West-central Florida, Freeze Event of 2010More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
More than 110 sinkholes formed in the Dover area of Florida during a freeze event in January 2010. Ground water levels dropped to record-setting lows as farmers pumped water to irrigate their plants for protection from the cold temperatures. The sinkholes destroyed homes, roads and sections of cultivated areas.
What are sinkholes?Listen to hear the answer.
What's Up With Sinkholes?A huge sinkhole in Texas begs a few questions about this fascinating and sometimes hazardous phenomenon, so we sit down with USGS geologist Randy Orndorff to learn more.
A huge sinkhole in Texas begs a few questions about this fascinating and sometimes hazardous phenomenon, so we sit down with USGS geologist Randy Orndorff to learn more.
Various Karst Features Along Peace River, FlObserving the small amount of flow going into Dover Sink.
Observing the small amount of flow going into Dover Sink.
Various Karst Features Along Peace River, FlMonitoring levels at Gator Sink.
Monitoring levels at Gator Sink.
Various Karst Features Along Peace River, FlCrevasses Sink spans approximately 25 ft across the river bed.
Crevasses Sink spans approximately 25 ft across the river bed.
Winter Park Florida Sinkhole of 1981Photo 15 of 15: Water level in sinkhole chimney stabilized since the previous day. View to south across the sinhole.
Photo 15 of 15: Water level in sinkhole chimney stabilized since the previous day. View to south across the sinhole.
Winter Park Florida Sinkhole of 1981Photo 5 of 15: House in a sinkhole. View to east across the sinkhole.
Photo 5 of 15: House in a sinkhole. View to east across the sinkhole.
Winter Park Florida Sinkhole of 1981Photo 6 of 15: Sinkhole chimney at approximately 12 noon. View to south across the sinkhole.
Photo 6 of 15: Sinkhole chimney at approximately 12 noon. View to south across the sinkhole.
Winter Park Florida Sinkhole of 1981Photo 12 of 15: Water level has risen and is now apparent in sinkhole since pool collapse and house swallowed. View to south across the sinkhole. The rising water level is likely a result of the debris plugging the conduit into the Floridan aquifer. Water level is rising to assume a position more consistent with that of the surficial aquifer. (3 p.m.)
Photo 12 of 15: Water level has risen and is now apparent in sinkhole since pool collapse and house swallowed. View to south across the sinkhole. The rising water level is likely a result of the debris plugging the conduit into the Floridan aquifer. Water level is rising to assume a position more consistent with that of the surficial aquifer. (3 p.m.)
Sinkhole in Frederick, MarylandCover-collapse sinkhole in limestone near Frederick, Maryland (September 2003). Many sinkholes occur along highways where rainwater runoff is concentrated into storm drains and ditches increasing the rate of sinkhole development (note the sewer drain pipe beneath roadway).
Cover-collapse sinkhole in limestone near Frederick, Maryland (September 2003). Many sinkholes occur along highways where rainwater runoff is concentrated into storm drains and ditches increasing the rate of sinkhole development (note the sewer drain pipe beneath roadway).
Prairie Pothole RegionPrairie Pothole Region landscape showing high wetland density.
Prairie Pothole Region landscape showing high wetland density.
- Publications
U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, October 19–20, 2021
Karst hydrogeologic systems represent challenging and unique conditions to scientists attempting to study groundwater flow and contaminant transport. Karst terrains are characterized by distinct and beautiful landscapes, caverns, and springs, and many of the exceptional karst areas are designated as national or state parks. The range and complexity of landforms and groundwater flow systems associaEffects of projected climate (2011–50) on karst hydrology and species vulnerability—Edwards aquifer, south-central Texas, and Madison aquifer, western South Dakota
Karst aquifers—formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone—are critical groundwater resources in North America, and karst springs, caves, and streams provide habitat for unique flora and fauna. Springflow and groundwater levels in karst terrane can change greatly over short time scales, and therefore are likely to respond rapidly to climate change. How might the biological communiAuthorsBarbara Mahler, John F. Stamm, Mary F. Poteet, Amy J. Symstad, MaryLynn Musgrove, Andrew J. Long, Parker A. NortonKarst in the United States: A digital map compilation and database
This report describes new digital maps delineating areas of the United States, including Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, having karst or the potential for development of karst and pseudokarst. These maps show areas underlain by soluble rocks and also by volcanic rocks, sedimentary deposits, and permafrost that have potential for karst or pseudokarst development. All 50 States contain rockAuthorsDavid J. Weary, Daniel H. DoctorSinkholes
Sinkholes are a common feature in Missouri where limestone and dolomite outcrop. Though often considered a benign nuisance, sudden, catastrophic collapses can destroy property, delay construction projects, and contaminate ground water resources.AuthorsJames E. KaufmannLand subsidence in the United States
No abstract available.AuthorsDevin L. Galloway, David R. Jones, S. E. IngebritsenLand subsidence in the United States
This report explores the role of science in defining and understanding subsidence problems, and shows that the optimal use of our land and water resources may depend on improved scientific understanding to minimize subsidence. More than 80 percent of the identified land subsidence in the Nation is a consequence of human impact on subsurface water, and is an often overlooked environmental consequenAuthorsDevin L. Galloway, David R. Jones, S. E. IngebritsenKarst topography; computer animations and paper model
No abstract available.AuthorsT. R. Alpha, John P. Galloway, J. C. TinsleyGeology of caves
A cave is a natural opening in the ground extending beyond the zone of light and large enough to permit the entry of man. Occurring in a wide variety of rock types and caused by widely differing geological processes, caves range in size from single small rooms to intercorinecting passages many miles long. The scientific study of caves is called speleology (from the Greek words spelaion for cave anAuthorsI.M. MorganDevelopment of sinkholes resulting from man's activities in the Eastern United States
Development of induced sinkholes in carbonate terranes in the Eastern United States has resulted in costly damage and water pollution. Previously, detailed investigations of sinkholes were limited to Alabama and Missouri, with the most comprehensive being in Alabama. An investigation of the remainder of the area was made in 1981 to regionalize previous findings. More than 850 sites of sinkhole devAuthorsJohn G. NewtonFormation of solution-subsidence sinkholes above salt beds
No abstract available.AuthorsJohn R. Ege - News