Marine Mineral Resources and USGS Studies
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) provides science and data on offshore mineral resources and ecosystems, as well as any potential hazards associated with extraction. Society relies on minerals for infrastructure, technology, manufacturing, and energy production; critical minerals are essential to the economic or national security of the United States and have a supply chain vulnerable to disruption.
For decades, USGS scientific innovation has contributed to the delineation of marine mineral resources; understanding the mechanisms of marine mineral formation; and investigating the extent of environmental impacts should resource extraction occur. The USGS has also led scientific inquiries into the potential for deep sea mining since 1962. By providing impartial science on marine minerals and their environmental setting in the deep oceans, the USGS enables the public and decisionmakers to evaluate best practices regarding mineral resource development.

For many regions of the global oceans, limited data are available regarding mineral abundance, composition, environmental setting, and associated ecology. The USGS provides the Nation with expertise in many aspects of global marine minerals through a collaboration of three USGS Mission Areas.

For many regions of the global oceans, limited data are available regarding mineral abundance, composition, environmental setting, and associated ecology. The USGS provides the Nation with expertise in many aspects of global marine minerals through a collaboration of three USGS Mission Areas.
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The Coastal and Marine Hazards and Resources Program in the Natural Hazards Mission area leads federal scientific work on marine minerals, which has included research into polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Cook Islands, and elsewhere; cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts throughout Central and Western Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean; and polymetallic sulfides in many locations globally, including most recently on an interagency research expedition to the Escanaba Trough, offshore northern California.
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The Land Management Research Program in the Ecosystems Mission Area characterizes seabed ecosystems and water column biota and studies the potential environmental effects of disturbing habitats or ecosystems, including recent work on the Blake Plateau, offshore South Carolina.
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The Mineral Resources Program in the Energy and Minerals Mission Area contributes expertise in natural resources, mineral life cycles, and mineral supply chains. The Program’s National Mineral Information Center (NMIC) tracks mineral commodities, which would include marine minerals should they enter the supply chain.
What types of minerals?

Minerals occur in every ocean basin, from the coastal zone to the deep ocean. In the deep oceans, exploration is ongoing for polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulfides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. These minerals are considered a potential future source of many elements, including some elements which are designated as critical minerals. Elements that are on the 2022 Critical Minerals list are in bold. The term possible byproducts indicates elements that are not a main product of a potential mining operation, but could possibly be produced in addition to the main products.
Critical minerals that are abundant in seafloor deposits include nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and manganese (Mn). These minerals are crucial components in stainless steel, superalloys, and batteries. The rare earth elements and yttrium, often abbreviated as REY, are a group of 17 different elements. Two of these, neodymium and dysprosium, are used in permanent magnets and lasers.
- Polymetallic nodules occur on sediment-covered abyssal plains with low particle flux at depths of 11,500- 21,325 feet (3500-6500 meters) below sea level. Polymetallic nodules are of interest for Ni, Cu, Co, Mn; possible byproducts include the rare earth elements including yttrium (REY), and Li.

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Polymetallic sulfides form at some hydrothermal vents, which occur where new seafloor is formed (spreading centers) and in the areas where tectonic plates are consumed at subduction zones (arcs and back arcs). Polymetallic sulfides are of interest for Cu, Zn, Au, Ag, Pb; possible byproducts include Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Ga, Ge, Hg, In, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se, Sn, Te, and platinum group elements (PGE).
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Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts occur on rock surfaces at depths of 1300- 23,000 feet (400-7000 meters) below sea level. They are often found on seamounts. Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts are of interest for Mn, Co, Ni, Cu; possible byproducts include REY, Te, Sc, Pt.
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Rare earth element and yttrium (REY)-rich muds are deep-sea muds which can also occur in the deep ocean, usually several meters below the sediment surface.
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Phosphorite minerals can occur in continental margins or further offshore on seamounts. Phosphorites are of interest for P and REY.
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Heavy mineral sands can accumulate in coastal environments as water transport sorts these sands from other sediments. Heavy mineral sands are of interest for Ti, Sn, Pt, Au, Ag, REY.

What is the USGS role in understanding marine minerals?
The USGS provides cutting edge, unbiased data on marine minerals. The USGS creates prospective maps of the places where these minerals occur; investigates the processes that lead to specific enrichments within these minerals; and studies the physical and chemical implications of their potential commercial extraction. The USGS studies the marine environments where these minerals exist and conducts multidisciplinary investigations into marine minerals and surrounding ecosystems. Such investigations provide data and insights that are essential for managers and the public to understand and make informed decisions regarding potential resource extraction.
USGS activities focused on marine minerals studies complements the Bureau’s work on land-based minerals and mineral supply chains. USGS data collection and analysis are used to evaluate and identify minerals that are critical to the U.S. economy and national security. The USGS also analyzes mineral markets and provides statistics on mineral commodities in all sectors of the U.S. economy, including to support national security.
The USGS collaborates with the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, which has regulatory authority for mineral extraction on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf, and NOAA, which has regulatory authority for U.S. activities related to mineral extraction on the high seas, on targeted seabed mineral and associated ecosystem studies. Such studies provide crucial data to inform other agencies’ regulatory decisions.

Marine minerals occur in every ocean basin, including within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, which is larger than the land area of the U.S., as well as the Extended Continental Shelf (ECS). However, currently, only a few of these locations have sufficient data to determine whether or not they are deposits, defined as mineral concentrations which could be viable for commercial production.
The map shows prospective regions, or regions where minerals may occur based on geological and oceanographic criteria, for polymetallic nodules and Co-rich ferromanganese crusts. It also outlines mid-ocean ridges and back arc basins, which, along with volcanic arcs, are regions where hydrothermal vents form. Under certain conditions, hydrothermal vents can form polymetallic sulfide deposits. Currently, there are only a handful of locations where enough data has been collected on the grade and tonnage of these minerals for the term ‘deposit’ to be evaluated with confidence.
For more information:
Learn more about the USGS Global Marine Mineral Resources project.
Global Marine Mineral Resources
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) provides science and data on offshore mineral resources and ecosystems, as well as any potential hazards associated with extraction. Society relies on minerals for infrastructure, technology, manufacturing, and energy production; critical minerals are essential to the economic or national security of the United States and have a supply chain vulnerable to disruption.
For decades, USGS scientific innovation has contributed to the delineation of marine mineral resources; understanding the mechanisms of marine mineral formation; and investigating the extent of environmental impacts should resource extraction occur. The USGS has also led scientific inquiries into the potential for deep sea mining since 1962. By providing impartial science on marine minerals and their environmental setting in the deep oceans, the USGS enables the public and decisionmakers to evaluate best practices regarding mineral resource development.

For many regions of the global oceans, limited data are available regarding mineral abundance, composition, environmental setting, and associated ecology. The USGS provides the Nation with expertise in many aspects of global marine minerals through a collaboration of three USGS Mission Areas.

For many regions of the global oceans, limited data are available regarding mineral abundance, composition, environmental setting, and associated ecology. The USGS provides the Nation with expertise in many aspects of global marine minerals through a collaboration of three USGS Mission Areas.
-
The Coastal and Marine Hazards and Resources Program in the Natural Hazards Mission area leads federal scientific work on marine minerals, which has included research into polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Cook Islands, and elsewhere; cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts throughout Central and Western Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean; and polymetallic sulfides in many locations globally, including most recently on an interagency research expedition to the Escanaba Trough, offshore northern California.
-
The Land Management Research Program in the Ecosystems Mission Area characterizes seabed ecosystems and water column biota and studies the potential environmental effects of disturbing habitats or ecosystems, including recent work on the Blake Plateau, offshore South Carolina.
-
The Mineral Resources Program in the Energy and Minerals Mission Area contributes expertise in natural resources, mineral life cycles, and mineral supply chains. The Program’s National Mineral Information Center (NMIC) tracks mineral commodities, which would include marine minerals should they enter the supply chain.
What types of minerals?

Minerals occur in every ocean basin, from the coastal zone to the deep ocean. In the deep oceans, exploration is ongoing for polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulfides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. These minerals are considered a potential future source of many elements, including some elements which are designated as critical minerals. Elements that are on the 2022 Critical Minerals list are in bold. The term possible byproducts indicates elements that are not a main product of a potential mining operation, but could possibly be produced in addition to the main products.
Critical minerals that are abundant in seafloor deposits include nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and manganese (Mn). These minerals are crucial components in stainless steel, superalloys, and batteries. The rare earth elements and yttrium, often abbreviated as REY, are a group of 17 different elements. Two of these, neodymium and dysprosium, are used in permanent magnets and lasers.
- Polymetallic nodules occur on sediment-covered abyssal plains with low particle flux at depths of 11,500- 21,325 feet (3500-6500 meters) below sea level. Polymetallic nodules are of interest for Ni, Cu, Co, Mn; possible byproducts include the rare earth elements including yttrium (REY), and Li.

-
Polymetallic sulfides form at some hydrothermal vents, which occur where new seafloor is formed (spreading centers) and in the areas where tectonic plates are consumed at subduction zones (arcs and back arcs). Polymetallic sulfides are of interest for Cu, Zn, Au, Ag, Pb; possible byproducts include Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Ga, Ge, Hg, In, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se, Sn, Te, and platinum group elements (PGE).
-
Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts occur on rock surfaces at depths of 1300- 23,000 feet (400-7000 meters) below sea level. They are often found on seamounts. Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts are of interest for Mn, Co, Ni, Cu; possible byproducts include REY, Te, Sc, Pt.
-
Rare earth element and yttrium (REY)-rich muds are deep-sea muds which can also occur in the deep ocean, usually several meters below the sediment surface.
-
Phosphorite minerals can occur in continental margins or further offshore on seamounts. Phosphorites are of interest for P and REY.
-
Heavy mineral sands can accumulate in coastal environments as water transport sorts these sands from other sediments. Heavy mineral sands are of interest for Ti, Sn, Pt, Au, Ag, REY.

What is the USGS role in understanding marine minerals?
The USGS provides cutting edge, unbiased data on marine minerals. The USGS creates prospective maps of the places where these minerals occur; investigates the processes that lead to specific enrichments within these minerals; and studies the physical and chemical implications of their potential commercial extraction. The USGS studies the marine environments where these minerals exist and conducts multidisciplinary investigations into marine minerals and surrounding ecosystems. Such investigations provide data and insights that are essential for managers and the public to understand and make informed decisions regarding potential resource extraction.
USGS activities focused on marine minerals studies complements the Bureau’s work on land-based minerals and mineral supply chains. USGS data collection and analysis are used to evaluate and identify minerals that are critical to the U.S. economy and national security. The USGS also analyzes mineral markets and provides statistics on mineral commodities in all sectors of the U.S. economy, including to support national security.
The USGS collaborates with the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, which has regulatory authority for mineral extraction on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf, and NOAA, which has regulatory authority for U.S. activities related to mineral extraction on the high seas, on targeted seabed mineral and associated ecosystem studies. Such studies provide crucial data to inform other agencies’ regulatory decisions.

Marine minerals occur in every ocean basin, including within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, which is larger than the land area of the U.S., as well as the Extended Continental Shelf (ECS). However, currently, only a few of these locations have sufficient data to determine whether or not they are deposits, defined as mineral concentrations which could be viable for commercial production.
The map shows prospective regions, or regions where minerals may occur based on geological and oceanographic criteria, for polymetallic nodules and Co-rich ferromanganese crusts. It also outlines mid-ocean ridges and back arc basins, which, along with volcanic arcs, are regions where hydrothermal vents form. Under certain conditions, hydrothermal vents can form polymetallic sulfide deposits. Currently, there are only a handful of locations where enough data has been collected on the grade and tonnage of these minerals for the term ‘deposit’ to be evaluated with confidence.
For more information:
Learn more about the USGS Global Marine Mineral Resources project.