Ecologically-Driven Exposure Pathways Science Team Active
The Team Determines Factors That Influence Fish and Wildlife Exposure
to toxicants such as mercury in the environment
Scientists Can Sample Tissues and Blood in Small Birds Without Harm
to understand factors such as maternal transfer of contaminants to offspring
The Team Studies Factors that Influence Exposure Risk in Mammals
such as foraging and fasting behavior in elephant seals
Factors that Influence Pathogen Transmission are Identified
Advanced Techniques are used to Understand Contaminant Sources
The Ecologically-Driven Exposure Pathways Integrated Science Team identifies how ecological pathways and physiological processes within a single organism can alter exposure and toxicity of contaminants and pathogens and seek to understand outcomes at different scales from individuals to populations and ecosystems.
Contaminant and pathogen exposure alone does not necessarily result in adverse health outcomes in fish, wildlife, or humans. There are numerous pathways and processes that can alter the toxicity of naturally occurring and human-made contaminants in the environment.
The team uses their broad scientific expertise in hydrology, geochemistry, biology, and ecotoxicology to understand the complexities associated with the movement of toxicants and pathogens through the environment and within individual organisms. That information is used to determine how, where, and when exposure occurs and if exposure results in health risks to wildlife and humans.
Current Science Questions and Activities
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What are the various ecological factors, such as habitats and foraging strategies, that influence the pathways of contaminant exposure, health risks to fish and wildlife?
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What are the pathways of antimicrobial resistance in the environment?
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What are the major intrinsic and extrinsic drivers of mercury exposure and risk to humans, fish, and wildlife at a global scale?
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What are the internal physiological determinants such as metababolism, transfer of mercury to offspring, changes in body mass, and molting that influence exposure and health risks in fish and wildlife?
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How do the internal factors differ among species and life stages?
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What are the Influences of landscape alterations, perturbations, and restoration on pathways and movement of contaminants through ecosystems and bioaccumulation into the food web of aquatic biota?
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Do multiple types and chemical mixtures have additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effects that influence the health of fish and wildlife?
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What are the internal and external drivers and regulators of human exposure to mercury?
- What is the risk of pathogen exposure and transmission among wildlife, livestock, and humans?
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What are the key environmental factors that control the viability of avian influenza virus shed by wild birds and what are the key environmental pathways of exposure and transmission of the virus?
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What is the role of soil, water, and vegetation in disease transmission such as Chronic Wasting Disease?
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How do invasive species influence the timing of contaminant uptake and bioaccumulation in fish and wildlife?
USGS science related to this science team’s activities.
New Method Can Measure Naturally Occurring Element Exposure in Hummingbirds Without Harm
Body Symmetry in Forster's Terns Related to Mercury Exposure
Efficacy of Eggshell Analyses as a Nonlethal Method to Estimate Mercury Exposure in Bird Embryos
New Method Improves Measurement of Bullet Fragments in Culled Varmints
Low Levels of Contaminants Found in Great Lakes Tree Swallow Nestlings
Frequent Fliers—Web-Based Tool Aids in Understanding the Role of Wild Birds in Transmission of Avian Influenza
Organic Contaminant Levels and the Reproductive Success of Ospreys in Chesapeake Bay
Synthesis of Mercury Distribution and Bioaccumulation Across Western North America
Low Levels of Contaminants Found in Great Lakes Tree Swallow Eggs
Winter Eagle Deaths at Great Salt Lake due to West Nile Virus
Human Influenza Virus Infects Sea Otters
Mercury in Fish from 21 National Parks in the West
The following are the data releases from this science team’s research activities.
Mercury source identification in the Mobile and Tombigbee Rivers
Mercury and Methylmercury Stable Isotope Measurements in Giant Petrels
Mercury Concentrations in Western Gulls along the West Coast, USA, 2015-2017
Hair and blood total mercury concentrations in raccoons and striped skunks from Suisun Marsh 2016 to 2019
Mercury Concentrations and Stable Isotopes in Riparian Songbirds and Invertebrates from the Willamette River, Oregon, 2013
Mercury Concentrations and Mercury Isotopes in Salmonid fishes from the Snake River and tributaries in Idaho and Oregon, 2015 and 2019 (ver. 2.0, February 2021)
Trace metals in water and biota in and near headwater streams in the Colorado Mineral Belt
Total Mercury Concentrations in Smallmouth Bass from Chesapeake Bay Tributaries, USA Dataset, 2013-2017
Soil sample locations for chronic wasting disease prion surveillance in Grand Teton National Park and National Elk Refuge 2019
Trask River Watershed Study Area Forestry Bioaccumulation Dataset, 2011-2015
Incubation Constancy, Number of Incubation Recesses, Recess Duration and Mercury Concentrations for Tree Swallows at the Cosumnes River Preserve 2014
Pore water chemistry of wetlands in Interior and Southcentral Alaska, 2015 and 2016
Below are publications associated with this science team.
Exposure and effects of bioaccumulative contaminants of emerging concern in tree swallows nesting across the Laurentian Great Lakes
Mercury contamination and potential health risks to Arctic seabirds and shorebirds
Assessment of mercury in sediments and waters of Grubers Grove Bay, Wisconsin
Methylmercury stable isotopes: New insights on assessing aquatic food web bioaccumulation in legacy impacted regions
Increased mercury and reduced insect diversity in linked stream-riparian food webs downstream of a historical mercury mine
Using carbon, nitrogen, and mercury isotope values to distinguish mercury sources to Alaskan lake trout
Contaminant fluxes across ecosystems mediated by aquatic insects
Genomically diverse carbapenem resistant Enterobacteriaceae from wild birds provide insight into global patterns of spatiotemporal dissemination
Quantitative meta-analysis reveals no association between mercury contamination and body condition in birds
Epidemiological differences between sexes affect management efficacy in simulated chronic wasting disease systems
Use of riparian spiders as sentinels of persistent and bioavailable chemical contaminants in aquatic ecosystems: A review
Examination of the interaction between age-specific predation and chronic disease in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem
- Overview
The Ecologically-Driven Exposure Pathways Integrated Science Team identifies how ecological pathways and physiological processes within a single organism can alter exposure and toxicity of contaminants and pathogens and seek to understand outcomes at different scales from individuals to populations and ecosystems.
Contaminant and pathogen exposure alone does not necessarily result in adverse health outcomes in fish, wildlife, or humans. There are numerous pathways and processes that can alter the toxicity of naturally occurring and human-made contaminants in the environment.
The team uses their broad scientific expertise in hydrology, geochemistry, biology, and ecotoxicology to understand the complexities associated with the movement of toxicants and pathogens through the environment and within individual organisms. That information is used to determine how, where, and when exposure occurs and if exposure results in health risks to wildlife and humans.
Current Science Questions and Activities
-
What are the various ecological factors, such as habitats and foraging strategies, that influence the pathways of contaminant exposure, health risks to fish and wildlife?
-
What are the pathways of antimicrobial resistance in the environment?
-
What are the major intrinsic and extrinsic drivers of mercury exposure and risk to humans, fish, and wildlife at a global scale?
-
What are the internal physiological determinants such as metababolism, transfer of mercury to offspring, changes in body mass, and molting that influence exposure and health risks in fish and wildlife?
-
How do the internal factors differ among species and life stages?
-
What are the Influences of landscape alterations, perturbations, and restoration on pathways and movement of contaminants through ecosystems and bioaccumulation into the food web of aquatic biota?
-
Do multiple types and chemical mixtures have additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effects that influence the health of fish and wildlife?
-
What are the internal and external drivers and regulators of human exposure to mercury?
- What is the risk of pathogen exposure and transmission among wildlife, livestock, and humans?
-
What are the key environmental factors that control the viability of avian influenza virus shed by wild birds and what are the key environmental pathways of exposure and transmission of the virus?
-
What is the role of soil, water, and vegetation in disease transmission such as Chronic Wasting Disease?
-
How do invasive species influence the timing of contaminant uptake and bioaccumulation in fish and wildlife?
-
- Science
USGS science related to this science team’s activities.
Filter Total Items: 25New Method Can Measure Naturally Occurring Element Exposure in Hummingbirds Without Harm
Seventeen naturally occurring trace elements, including those associated with adverse health impacts when birds are exposed to toxic levels (iron, lead, mercury, selenium, zinc, cadmium, and arsenic) were measured in small birds without harm. The nonlethal method was developed for hummingbirds, with Anna's hummingbirds ( Calypte anna ) as a test species and can be more broadly applied to other...Body Symmetry in Forster's Terns Related to Mercury Exposure
Body symmetry of Forster's terns (Sterna forsteri) in San Francisco Bay was related to blood and feather mercury concentrations. Body asymmetry can affect a bird's fitness by reducing flight efficiency, thus increasing energetic costs (especially during migration) and interrupting normal feeding and breeding behaviors.Efficacy of Eggshell Analyses as a Nonlethal Method to Estimate Mercury Exposure in Bird Embryos
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists evaluated a nonlethal method to estimate mercury in the embryos of 23 bird species using mercury content in eggshells. This method was effective for a wide range of ages and species.New Method Improves Measurement of Bullet Fragments in Culled Varmints
A creative combination of radiography and techniques borrowed from meat processing and gold prospecting led to a better method for determining the lead content in ground squirrels shot by hunters to evaluate potential exposure risk to avian scavengers such as golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ).Low Levels of Contaminants Found in Great Lakes Tree Swallow Nestlings
Tree swallow nestlings at most study sites in the Great Lakes basin were minimally exposed to organic contaminants.Frequent Fliers—Web-Based Tool Aids in Understanding the Role of Wild Birds in Transmission of Avian Influenza
This visualization tool helps researchers and public health officials see how relations between poultry density and waterfowl migration routes affect the threat of avian influenza to people and the poultry industry.Organic Contaminant Levels and the Reproductive Success of Ospreys in Chesapeake Bay
Changes in the regulation and use of some organic chemicals have caused environmental concentrations to stabilize or decline during the past 35 years coincident with a rebound in the osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) population of the Chesapeake Bay.Synthesis of Mercury Distribution and Bioaccumulation Across Western North America
The unique combination of natural processes and human activities present in western North America can strongly affect the exposure of fish and birds to methylmercury, the most toxic form of mercury (Hg).Low Levels of Contaminants Found in Great Lakes Tree Swallow Eggs
Tree swallow eggs at most study sites in the Great Lakes basin were minimally exposed to legacy organic contaminants and brominated flame retardants.Winter Eagle Deaths at Great Salt Lake due to West Nile Virus
Scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) diagnosed West Nile Virus (WNV) in numerous eared grebes and bald eagles that died in a 2013 mortality event in the Great Salt Lake (GSL). Diagnoses were based on findings during pathological analysis to determine cause of death, including molecular detection of WNV genetic material in tissues, and isolation of WNV from multiple tissues from each...Human Influenza Virus Infects Sea Otters
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists, in collaboration with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, have discovered evidence of the same influenza virus (H1N1) in sea otters living off the coast of Washington State that caused the 2009 "swine flu" pandemic in humans. During a sea otter health monitoring projectconducted in 2011, researchers discovered antibodies for the pandemic 2009...Mercury in Fish from 21 National Parks in the West
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and National Park Service (NPS) scientists collaborated in the first study to measure mercury in fish from remote places in 21 National Parks spanning 10 Western States, including Alaska. Mercury levels in fish generally were low, but were elevated in some local areas, including two parks in Utah and Alaska where samples taken from sport fish exceeded the U.S... - Data
The following are the data releases from this science team’s research activities.
Filter Total Items: 38Mercury source identification in the Mobile and Tombigbee Rivers
This dataset details mercury concentrations and mercury stable isotope values collected as part of an environmental mercury assessment encompassing the Mobile and Tombigbee Rivers as well as two U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund sites. The Tensaw River was also sampled as part of this study as a reference site, absent of mercury contamination. As a part of this survey, sediments, wateMercury and Methylmercury Stable Isotope Measurements in Giant Petrels
Methylmercury (MeHg) and total mercury (HgT) stable isotope measurements were made by the USGS Mercury Research Lab (MRL) in different organs on the Giant Petrels (Macronectes spp.) to examine internal mercury cycling in these seabirds. These data were collected as a compliment to x-ray spectroscopy measurements made by the University of Grenoble, France. The tissues and feathers of the southern gMercury Concentrations in Western Gulls along the West Coast, USA, 2015-2017
We investigated whether foraging habitat, sex, or fidelity to a foraging area effected blood mercury concentrations in western gulls (Larus occidentalis) from three colonies on the west coast of the United States. Dataset includes total mercury concentrations in western gulls from three colony locations and associated foraging habitat of individual gulls. These data support the following publicHair and blood total mercury concentrations in raccoons and striped skunks from Suisun Marsh 2016 to 2019
Total mercury concentrations were determined in hair and whole blood of raccoons and skunks in Suisun Marsh from 2016 to 2019. Individual skunks and raccoons were identified by a unique identifier (Animal_ID) and some animals were sampled multiple times. This dataset includes animal sex, age class, the date the sample was collected, animal body mass, head length, and head-to-torso length. TheMercury Concentrations and Stable Isotopes in Riparian Songbirds and Invertebrates from the Willamette River, Oregon, 2013
This dataset includes bird species, invertebrate order and family, sample identification codes, collection date, latitude, longitude, site name, bird age, invertebrate life stage, invertebrate trophic group, carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in birds and invertebrates, total mercury concentrations in bird blood, and methylmercury concentrations in composite invertebrates.Mercury Concentrations and Mercury Isotopes in Salmonid fishes from the Snake River and tributaries in Idaho and Oregon, 2015 and 2019 (ver. 2.0, February 2021)
Comma-separated values (.csv) file containing data related to mercury in Salmonid fishes collected from the Snake River and tributaries, Idaho and Oregon.Trace metals in water and biota in and near headwater streams in the Colorado Mineral Belt
This data release includes sampling location data, field-collected water chemistry data, cation and anion concentration data for water and tissues of submerged aquatic vegetation, aquatic insect larvae, adult aquatic insects and riparian spiders from 35 first- and second-order sub-alpine streams that ranged over several orders of magnitude in metal concentrations but were similar in elevation, geoTotal Mercury Concentrations in Smallmouth Bass from Chesapeake Bay Tributaries, USA Dataset, 2013-2017
This dataset includes fish scientific name, fish common name, site identification codes, latitude, longitude, site name, sample identification codes, collection date, tissue type, percent moisture content in fish samples, and wet and dry total mercury concentrations in fish tissues.Soil sample locations for chronic wasting disease prion surveillance in Grand Teton National Park and National Elk Refuge 2019
A total of 200 soil samples were collected in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem in Grand Teton National Park and the National Elk Refuge in July 2019 for chronic wasting disease (CWD) monitoring purposes. To collect samples from locations where ungulates are most likely to be shedding or encountering CWD, we targeted elk collar data locations, known migration routes of mule deer and elk, and areasTrask River Watershed Study Area Forestry Bioaccumulation Dataset, 2011-2015
This dataset includes timber harvest treatments; mercury concentrations in aquatic macroinvertebrates, salamanders, and riparian songbirds; carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in aquatic macroinvertebrates and salamanders; and Bayesian estimates of food web length, basal resource diversity, and isotopic niche size for individual feeding guilds.Incubation Constancy, Number of Incubation Recesses, Recess Duration and Mercury Concentrations for Tree Swallows at the Cosumnes River Preserve 2014
These metadata provide data used to examine tree swallow incubation behavior in relation to egg mercury concentration and maternal blood mercury concentration. These data were collected from tree swallows nesting in artificial wooden nest boxes at the Cosumnes River Preserved in California's Central Valley in 2014. Included are two datasets. One dataset provides daily incubation constancy (the proPore water chemistry of wetlands in Interior and Southcentral Alaska, 2015 and 2016
The pore water of eight wetlands in Interior and Southcentral Alaska were collected in 2015 (17 July - 22 July) and 2016 (12 July - 16 July). Wetlands were selected to span a range in trophic status (e.g., from bog to fen). Using ultraclean trace metal clean protocols, pore waters were sampled from shallow (10-15 cm) and deep (20-35 cm) depths below the water table. Field measurements reported for - Publications
Below are publications associated with this science team.
Filter Total Items: 135Exposure and effects of bioaccumulative contaminants of emerging concern in tree swallows nesting across the Laurentian Great Lakes
Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are a loosely defined group of chemicals whose wide-spread usage or presence in the environment has occurred more recently or for which there has been relatively little research done until recently. Many of these CECs are not currently regulated. The National Toxicology Program within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services estimates that about 2000AuthorsChristine M. Custer, Thomas W. Custer, Paul DummerMercury contamination and potential health risks to Arctic seabirds and shorebirds
Since the last Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) effort to review biological effects of mercury (Hg) on Arctic biota in 2011 and 2018, there has been a considerable number of new Arctic bird studies. This review article provides contemporary Hg exposure and potential health risk for 36 Arctic seabird and shorebird species, representing a larger portion of the Arctic than during preAuthorsOlivier Chastel, Jérôme Fort, Josh T. Ackerman, Céline Albert, Frédéric Angelier, Niladri Basu, Pierre Blévin, Maud Brault-Favrou, Jan O. Bustnes, Paco Bustamante, Jóhannis Danielsen, Sébastien Descamps, Rune Dietz, Kjell Einar Erikstad, Igor Eulaers, Alexey Ezhov, Abram B Fleishman, Geir W. Gabrielsen, Maria Gavrilo, Grant Gilchrist, Olivier Gilg, Sindri Gíslason, Elena Golubova, Aurélie Goutte, David Grémillet, Gunnar T. Hallgrimsson, Erpur S Hansen, Sveinn A Hanssen, Scott Hatch, Nicholas P Huffeldt, Dariusz Jakubas, Jón Einar Jónsson, Alexander S Kitaysky, Yann Kolbeinsson, Yuri Krasnov, Robert J. Letcher, Jannie F Linnebjerg, Mark L. Mallory, Flemming R Merkel, Børge Moe, William J Montevecchi, Anders Mosbech, Bergur Olsen, Rachael A Orben, Jennifer F Provencher, Sunna B. Ragnarsdottir, Tone K Reiertsen, Nora A. Rojek, Marc Romano, Jens Søndergaard, Hallvard Strøm, Akinori Takahashi, Sabrina Tartu, Thorkell L Thórarinsson, Jean-Baptiste Thiebot, Alexis P Will, Simon Wilson, Katarzyna Wojczulanis-Jakubas, Glenn YannicAssessment of mercury in sediments and waters of Grubers Grove Bay, Wisconsin
Mercury is a global contaminant that can be detrimental to wildlife and human health. Anthropogenic emissions and point sources are primarily responsible for elevated mercury concentrations in sediments and waters. Mercury can physically move and chemically transform in the environment, resulting in biomagnification of mercury, in the form of methylmercury, in the food web and causing elevated merAuthorsEvan J. Routhier, Sarah E. Janssen, Michael T. Tate, Jacob M. Ogorek, John F. DeWild, David P. KrabbenhoftMethylmercury stable isotopes: New insights on assessing aquatic food web bioaccumulation in legacy impacted regions
Through stable isotope measurements of total mercury (HgT), identification of crucial processes and transformations affecting different sources of mercury (Hg) has become possible. However, attempting to use HgT stable isotopes to track bioaccumulation of Hg sources among different food web compartments can be challenging, if not impossible, when tissues have varying methylmercury (MeHg) contents.AuthorsTylor Rosera, Sarah E. Janssen, Michael T. Tate, Ryan F. Lepak, Jacob M. Ogorek, John F. DeWild, David P. Krabbenhoft, James P. HurleyIncreased mercury and reduced insect diversity in linked stream-riparian food webs downstream of a historical mercury mine
Historical mining left a legacy of abandoned mines and waste rock in remote headwaters of major river systems in the western United States. Understanding the influence of these legacy mines on culturally and ecological important downstream ecosystems is not always straight-forward because of elevated natural levels of mineralization in mining-impacted watersheds. To test the ecological effects ofAuthorsJohanna M. Kraus, JoAnn Holloway, Michael Pribil, Ben N. Mcgee, Craig A. Stricker, Danny Rutherford, Andrew S. ToddUsing carbon, nitrogen, and mercury isotope values to distinguish mercury sources to Alaskan lake trout
Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), collected from 13 remote lakes located in southwestern Alaska, were analyzed for carbon, nitrogen, and mercury (Hg) stable isotope values to assess the importance of migrating oceanic salmon, volcanic activity, and atmospheric deposition to fish Hg burden. Methylmercury (MeHg) bioaccumulation in phytoplankton (5.0–6.9 kg L–1) was also measured to quantify the basAuthorsRyan F. Lepak, Jacob M. Ogorek, Krista K. Bartz, Sarah E. Janssen, Michael T. Tate, Yin Runsheng, James P. Hurley, Daniel B. Young, Collin Eagles-Smith, David P. KrabbenhoftContaminant fluxes across ecosystems mediated by aquatic insects
Metals and organic contaminants in aquatic systems affect the coupling of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems through two pathways: contaminant-induced effects on insect emergence and emergence-induced contaminant transfer. Consequently, the impact of aquatic contaminants on terrestrial ecosystems can be driven by modifications in the quantity and quality of adult aquatic insects serving as prey orAuthorsMirco Bundschuh, Sebastian Pietz, Alexis P. Roodt, Johanna M. KrausGenomically diverse carbapenem resistant Enterobacteriaceae from wild birds provide insight into global patterns of spatiotemporal dissemination
Carbapenem resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) are a threat to public health globally, yet the role of the environment in the epidemiology of CRE remains elusive. Given that wild birds can acquire CRE, likely from foraging in anthropogenically impacted areas, and may aid in the maintenance and dissemination of CRE in the environment, a spatiotemporal comparison of isolates from different regions anAuthorsChristina Ahlstrom, Hanna Woksepp, Linus Sandegren, Mashkoor Mohsin, Badrul Hasan, Denys Muzyka, Jorge Hernandez, Filip Aguirre, Atalay Tok, Jan Söderman, Bjorn Olsen, Andrew M. Ramey, Jonas BonnedahlQuantitative meta-analysis reveals no association between mercury contamination and body condition in birds
Mercury contamination is a major threat to the global environment, and is still increasing in some regions despite international regulations. The methylated form of mercury is hazardous to biota, yet its sublethal effects are difficult to detect in wildlife. Body condition can vary in response to stressors, but previous studies have shown mixed effects of mercury on body condition in wildlife. UsiAuthorsAlice Carravieri, Orsolya Vincze, Paco Bustamante, Josh T. Ackerman, Evan M. Adams, Frédéric Angelier, Olivier Chastel, Yves Cherel, Olivier Gilg, Elena Golubova, Alexander Kitaysky, Katelyn Luff, Chad L. Seewagen, Hallvard Strøm, Alexis P. Will, Glenn Yannic, Mathieu Giraudeau, Jérôme FortEpidemiological differences between sexes affect management efficacy in simulated chronic wasting disease systems
Sex-based differences in physiology, behaviour and demography commonly result in differences in disease prevalence. However, sex differences in prevalence may reflect exposure rather than transmission, which could affect disease control programmes. One potential example is chronic wasting disease (CWD), which has been observed at greater prevalence among male than female deer.We used an age- and sAuthorsWilliam J. Rogers, Ellen E. Brandell, Paul C. CrossUse of riparian spiders as sentinels of persistent and bioavailable chemical contaminants in aquatic ecosystems: A review
Aquatic ecosystems around the world are contaminated with a wide range of anthropogenic chemicals, including metals and organic pollutants, that originate from point and nonpoint sources. Many of these chemical contaminants have complex environmental cycles, are persistent and bioavailable, can be incorporated into aquatic food webs, and pose a threat to the health of wildlife and humans. IdentifyAuthorsMatthew M. Chumchal, Gale B. Beaubien, Ray W. Drenner, Madeline P. Hannappel, Marc A. Mills, Connor I. Olson, Ryan R. Otter, Andrew C. Todd, David WaltersExamination of the interaction between age-specific predation and chronic disease in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem
Predators may create healthier prey populations by selectively removing diseased individuals. Predators typically prefer some ages of prey over others, which may, or may not, align with those prey ages that are most likely to be diseased.The interaction of age-specific infection and predation has not been previously explored and likely has sizable effects on disease dynamics. We hypothesize that pAuthorsEllen E. Brandell, Paul C. Cross, Douglas W. Smith, William J. Rogers, Nathan L. Galloway, Daniel R. MacNulty, Daniel R. Stahler, John J. Treanor, Peter J. Hudson - Web Tools
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