Planetary Science

Solar flares and magnetic storms belong to a set of phenomena known collectively as "space weather". Technological systems and the activities of modern civilization can be affected by changing space-weather conditions. However, it has never been demonstrated that there is a causal relationship between space weather and earthquakes. Indeed, over the course of the Sun's 11-year variable cycle, the...

Satellites and ground-based magnetometers are both important for making measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field. They are not redundant but are instead complementary: Satellites provide good geographical coverage for data collection. Ground-based magnetometers are much less expensive and much easier to install than satellites. An array of magnetometers provides coverage from numerous locations...

Our technology based infrastructure can be adversely affected by rapid magnetic field variations. This is especially true during “magnetic storms." Because the ionosphere is heated and distorted during storms, long range radio communication that relies on sub-ionospheric reflection can be difficult or impossible and global-positioning system (GPS) communications can be degraded. Ionospheric...

The Earth's magnetic field does not directly affect human health. Humans evolved to live on this planet. High altitude pilots and astronauts can experience higher levels of radiation during magnetic storms, but the hazard is due to the radiation, not the magnetic field itself. Geomagnetism can also impact the electrically based technology that we rely on, but it does not impact people themselves...

A magnetic storm is a period of rapid magnetic field variation. It can last from hours to days. Magnetic storms have two basic causes: The Sun sometimes emits a strong surge of solar wind called a coronal mass ejection. This gust of solar wind disturbs the outer part of the Earth's magnetic field, which undergoes a complex oscillation. This generates associated electric currents in the near-Earth...

Almost certainly not. Since the invention of the magnetometer in the 1830s, the average intensity of the magnetic field at the Earth's surface has decreased by about ten percent. We know from paleomagnetic records that the intensity of the magnetic field decreases by as much as ninety percent at the Earth's surface during a reversal. But those same paleomagnetic records also show that the field...

At most places on the Earth's surface, the compass doesn't point exactly toward geographic north. The deviation of the compass from true north is an angle called "declination" (or "magnetic declination"). It is a quantity that has been a nuisance to navigators for centuries, especially since it varies with both geographic location and time . It might surprise you to know that at very high...

The Earth's outer core is in a state of turbulent convection as the result of radioactive heating and chemical differentiation. This sets up a process that is a bit like a naturally occurring electrical generator, where the convective kinetic energy is converted to electrical and magnetic energy. Basically, the motion of the electrically conducting iron in the presence of the Earth's magnetic...

Yes. There is evidence that some animals, like sea turtles and salmon, have the ability to sense the Earth's magnetic field (although probably not consciously) and to use this sense for navigation.

No. There is no evidence of a correlation between mass extinctions and magnetic pole reversals. Earth’s magnetic field and its atmosphere protect us from solar radiation. It’s not clear whether a weak magnetic field during a polarity transition would allow enough solar radiation to reach the Earth's surface that it would cause extinctions. But reversals happen rather frequently--every million...

In a sense, yes. The Earth is composed of layers having different chemical compositions and different physical properties. The crust of the Earth has some permanent magnetization, and the Earth’s core generates its own magnetic field, sustaining the main part of the field we measure at the surface. So we could say that the Earth is, therefore, a "magnet." But permanent magnetization cannot occur...

Although extremely unlikely, it might be possible for a reversal of the Earth's magnetic field to be triggered by a meteorite or comet impact, or even for it to be caused by something more "gentle," such as the melting of the polar ice caps. Self-contained dynamic systems like Earth’s dynamo can have reversals without any outside influence. Reversals of Earth's magnetic field can simply happen...