A USGS scientist is conducting geologic mapping and collecting a sample of bedrock for new geochronologic analysis on the flanks of Victoria Mountain in the Yukon-Tanana upland of eastern interior Alaska.
Adrian M Bender
I study how Alaska's landscapes adjust to earthquake-related rock uplift, climatic change, and human action. My science is strongly fieldwork-oriented, and also uses geographic information systems, digital topography analysis, simple models, and collaborations with academic experts in cosmogenic isotope geochemistry and luminescence dating. Results from my work provide the general public and scientific community with basic information about how, when, where, and how fast or slow Alaska's land surface has uplifted, eroded, and produced mineral resources such as placer gold.
Professional Experience
2015 - Present Geologist, USGS Alaska Science Center, Anchorage, Alaska
2012 - 2015 Physical Science Tech, USGS Alaska Science Center, Anchorage, Alaska
2014 - 2015 Graduate Research Assistant, Western Washington University
2013 - 2014 Graduate Teaching Assistant, Western Washington University
2010 - 2012 Undergraduate Lab Assistant, University of Alaska, Anchorage
Education and Certifications
M.S. 2015 Western Washington University (WWU) Geology
B.S. 2012 University of Alaska, Anchorage (UAA) Geology
Affiliations and Memberships*
American Geophysical Union (2012-present)
Geological Society of America (2013-present)
Honors and Awards
WWU Outstanding Graduate Award, Geology Department (2015)
Hecla-Greens Creek Scholarship (2011)
Chugach Gem and Mineral Society Scholarship (2012)
Fran Ulmer Transformative Research Award, UAA (2012)
Global Change Research Grant, UA Statewide (2012)
Geological Society of America Graduate Student Research Grant (2014)
Geology Graduate Student Research Grant, WWU (2014)
Science and Products
Alaska Seismic Hazard Map
Alaska Earthquake and Tsunami Hazards
Characterizing the Active Queen Charlotte-Fairweather Fault System
Computed Tomography (CT) scans of sediment cores collected from Montague Island, AK
Radiocarbon Data from Coastal Environments on Montague Island, Alaska
Data Release for the 2023 U.S. 50-State National Seismic Hazard Model - Overview
Central Alaska Cosmogenic Isotope Burial Age Data Collected 2020-2022
Sediment Transport Data from the Totatlanika River, Alaska, August 2021
Totatlanika River Terrace Luminescence Age Data Collected 2020-2022
Charley River Cosmogenic Isotope Data Collected 2019-2021
Radiocarbon and Luminescence Data for Fairweather Fault Investigation, Glacier Bay National Park, Southeast Alaska
Fodar Orthomosaic and Digital Elevation Model of the Totatlanika River Corridor (Alaska, USA) Acquired August 2021
Field Data Collected 2018 to Document Human-induced Gorge Incision at The Kink (Fortymile River, Alaska)
Field reconnaissance of ground failure triggered by shaking during the 2018 M7.1 Anchorage, Alaska, earthquake
Geologic Inputs for the 2023 Alaska Update to the U.S. National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM)
A USGS scientist is conducting geologic mapping and collecting a sample of bedrock for new geochronologic analysis on the flanks of Victoria Mountain in the Yukon-Tanana upland of eastern interior Alaska.
A USGS scientist is conducting geologic mapping and collecting structural measurements from a bedrock outcrop in the West Crazy Mountains in eastern interior Alaska. The rock is metamorphosed chert that was originally deposited more than 350 million years ago in an ocean basin that was likely separated from present-day North America.
A USGS scientist is conducting geologic mapping and collecting structural measurements from a bedrock outcrop in the West Crazy Mountains in eastern interior Alaska. The rock is metamorphosed chert that was originally deposited more than 350 million years ago in an ocean basin that was likely separated from present-day North America.
USGS scientists conduct an aerial inspection of a line of sand vents along the Cook Inlet tide flat at Earthquake Park in Anchorage. Cook Inlet coastal plain liquefaction and bluff raveling near Earthquake Park. These vents opened and ejected sand due to liquefaction triggered by strong shaking during the M7.1 November 30, 2018 Anchorage earthquake.
USGS scientists conduct an aerial inspection of a line of sand vents along the Cook Inlet tide flat at Earthquake Park in Anchorage. Cook Inlet coastal plain liquefaction and bluff raveling near Earthquake Park. These vents opened and ejected sand due to liquefaction triggered by strong shaking during the M7.1 November 30, 2018 Anchorage earthquake.
Minnesota Blvd off-ramp failure under repair. Construction crews rebuild the Minnesota Drive onramp in Anchorage on December 1, 2018. Engineered fill beneath the onramp failed the day before as a result of strong shaking during the M7.1 November 30, 2018 Anchorage earthquake.
Minnesota Blvd off-ramp failure under repair. Construction crews rebuild the Minnesota Drive onramp in Anchorage on December 1, 2018. Engineered fill beneath the onramp failed the day before as a result of strong shaking during the M7.1 November 30, 2018 Anchorage earthquake.
Slumping along the Alaska Railroad right-of-way evolved into long-runout landslides. The same area failed in earthquakes in 1954 and 1964.
2018 Anchorage Earthquake
Slumping along the Alaska Railroad right-of-way evolved into long-runout landslides. The same area failed in earthquakes in 1954 and 1964.
2018 Anchorage Earthquake
A scientist investigates a bedrock canyon cut by the North Fork Fortymile River in response to human mining activity in 1900. The smooth grooves on the rock in the lower right corner were formed by river erosion in the last century.
A scientist investigates a bedrock canyon cut by the North Fork Fortymile River in response to human mining activity in 1900. The smooth grooves on the rock in the lower right corner were formed by river erosion in the last century.
A scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbed that is now 20 feet above the rapids at The Kink on the North Fork Fortymile River. The Kink resulted from human mining activity that diverted the river in 1900.
A scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbed that is now 20 feet above the rapids at The Kink on the North Fork Fortymile River. The Kink resulted from human mining activity that diverted the river in 1900.
A USGS scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbed that is now the rim of the bedrock canyon at The Kink on North Fork Fortymile River. The Kink resulted from human mining activity that diverted the river in 1900.
A USGS scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbed that is now the rim of the bedrock canyon at The Kink on North Fork Fortymile River. The Kink resulted from human mining activity that diverted the river in 1900.
The 2023 US 50-State National Seismic Hazard Model: Overview and implications
Rapid active thrust faulting at the northern Alaska Range front
Yukon River incision drove organic carbon burial in the Bering Sea during global climate changes at 2.6 and 1 Ma
Bedrock gorge incision via anthropogenic meander cutoff
Geomorphic expression and slip rate of the Fairweather fault, southeast Alaska, and evidence for predecessors of the 1958 rupture
Extreme Quaternary plate boundary exhumation and strike slip localized along the southern Fairweather fault, Alaska, USA
Dating by cosmogenic nuclides
Ancient rivers and critical minerals in eastern Alaska
Late Cenozoic climate change paces landscape adjustments to Yukon River capture
Ground failure triggered by shaking during the November 30, 2018, magnitude 7.1 Anchorage, Alaska, earthquake
Ground failure from the Anchorage, Alaska, earthquake of 30 November 2018
The 30 November 2018 Mw7.1 Anchorage Earthquake
Science and Products
- Science
Alaska Seismic Hazard Map
The National Seismic Hazard Maps developed by the USGS show the spatial probability of peak earthquake-driven ground motion levels. Since the last revisions to the map for Alaska in 2007, scientists have made significant advances in understanding active faulting, fault slip rates, and fault behavior.Alaska Earthquake and Tsunami Hazards
Alaska has more large earthquakes than the rest of the United States combined. More than three-quarters of the state’s population live in an area that can experience a magnitude 7 earthquake. Our research provides objective science that helps stakeholders prepare for and mitigate the effects of future earthquakes and tsunamis, which bolsters the economic health and well-being of Alaska and the...Characterizing the Active Queen Charlotte-Fairweather Fault System
This research aims to better characterize the earthquake potential of the southern Fairweather Fault in order to provide more accurate fault source data for the USGS National Seismic Hazard Map. Our approach interrogates lidar data and satellite imagery, applies paleoseismological methods to examine earthquake history, and leverages partnerships with USGS scientists from Colorado and California... - Data
Filter Total Items: 17
Computed Tomography (CT) scans of sediment cores collected from Montague Island, AK
This data release contains Computed Tomography (CT) scan images of sediment cores collected from Montague Island, in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Sediment cores were collected from lagoons uplifted >3 m in the 1964 earthquake along the coast of Montague Island and aid in interpreting changes in deposition environment over the past several thousand years, which may record evidence for past episodeRadiocarbon Data from Coastal Environments on Montague Island, Alaska
This dataset consists of sample descriptions and radiocarbon age data from coastal environments on Montague Island, Alaska, analyzed at the National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility.Data Release for the 2023 U.S. 50-State National Seismic Hazard Model - Overview
This data release contains data sets associated with the 2023 50-State National Seismic Hazard Model Update. The 2023 50-State National Seimsic Hazard Model (NSHM) Update includes an update to the NSHMs for the conterminous U.S (CONUS, last updated in 2018), Alaska (AK, last updated in 2007), and Hawaii (last updated in 2001). Data sets include inputs like seismicity catalogs used as input to theCentral Alaska Cosmogenic Isotope Burial Age Data Collected 2020-2022
This data release includes three tables containing cosmogenic beryllium-10 and aluminum-26 concentrations and related data from samples collected at four sites in central Alaska in 2020, prepared in 2022 at the University of Vermont (UVM), and measured at the Purdue Rare Isotope Measurement lab (PRIME) in 2022. The file "geology_siteLocations_centralAK_bender.csv" contains site locations in the NASediment Transport Data from the Totatlanika River, Alaska, August 2021
This data package provides four datasets acquired for the purpose of quantifying parameters affecting sediment trasport along the Totatlanika River, which drains the minerally endowed and tectonically active northern Alaska Range. The datasets provide measures of: (1) channel geometry, (2) boulders, (3) sediment grains size, and (4) water flow. The data can be used to understand sediment transportTotatlanika River Terrace Luminescence Age Data Collected 2020-2022
This dataset comprises three tables containing infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) ages and related data from samples collected at seven terrace sites along the Totatlanika River in central Alaska in 2020 and 2021. The IRSL ages and data were generated from the samples at the Utah State University Luminescence Lab. The ages were determined to enable computation of rates of bedrock incision aloCharley River Cosmogenic Isotope Data Collected 2019-2021
This data release comprises three tables containing cosmogenic beryllium-10 and aluminum-26 concentrations and related data from samples collected at four sites along the Charley River in central Alaska in 2019, prepared in 2020 at the University of Vermont (UVM), and measured at the Purdue Rare Isotope Measurement lab (PRIME) in 2021. The file "geology_siteLocations_Charley_bender_2022.csv" contaRadiocarbon and Luminescence Data for Fairweather Fault Investigation, Glacier Bay National Park, Southeast Alaska
This dataset is comprised of two tables with age data along the Fairweather fault in Glacier Bay National Park. The tables are: (1) radiocarbon dates analyzed at the National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility (NOSAMS), and (2) infrared stimulated luminescence ages determined by the Utah State University (USU) Luminescence Laboratory.Fodar Orthomosaic and Digital Elevation Model of the Totatlanika River Corridor (Alaska, USA) Acquired August 2021
This dataset provides a digital elevation model derived from airborne fodar data acquired in 2021 on August 31 over the Totatlanika River in central Alaska. The term fodar is a portmanteau of foto and lidar, coined by Matt Nolan, which describes a method of quantifying the color and elevation of Earth surfaces via airborne small-format digital camera photography.Field Data Collected 2018 to Document Human-induced Gorge Incision at The Kink (Fortymile River, Alaska)
This dataset comprises four tables containing channel survey cross section data, field observations including channel width and bank material, measured surface water velocity, and alluvial grain size data collected along the North Fork Fortymile River near a man-made meander cutoff called The Kink. The data release also contains eight field photos used to obtain grain size distribution; four photoField reconnaissance of ground failure triggered by shaking during the 2018 M7.1 Anchorage, Alaska, earthquake
These data present geolocated photographs, GPS tracks, and field-mapped ground failures collected during the USGS reconnaissance of ground failures following the 2018 M7.1 Anchorage Earthquake.Geologic Inputs for the 2023 Alaska Update to the U.S. National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM)
This data release is composed of three crustal (as opposed to subduction zone) geologic input datasets for the 2023 Alaska update to the U.S. National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM): 1) fault section vector line data, 2) fault zone vector polygon data, and 3) accompanying earthquake geology attributes. - Multimedia
Geologic mapping and sampling in remote interior AlaskaGeologic mapping and sampling in remote interior Alaska
A USGS scientist is conducting geologic mapping and collecting a sample of bedrock for new geochronologic analysis on the flanks of Victoria Mountain in the Yukon-Tanana upland of eastern interior Alaska.
A USGS scientist is conducting geologic mapping and collecting a sample of bedrock for new geochronologic analysis on the flanks of Victoria Mountain in the Yukon-Tanana upland of eastern interior Alaska.
Geologic mapping and sampling in AlaskaA USGS scientist is conducting geologic mapping and collecting structural measurements from a bedrock outcrop in the West Crazy Mountains in eastern interior Alaska. The rock is metamorphosed chert that was originally deposited more than 350 million years ago in an ocean basin that was likely separated from present-day North America.
A USGS scientist is conducting geologic mapping and collecting structural measurements from a bedrock outcrop in the West Crazy Mountains in eastern interior Alaska. The rock is metamorphosed chert that was originally deposited more than 350 million years ago in an ocean basin that was likely separated from present-day North America.
USGS scientists in helicopter conduct an aerial inspectionUSGS scientists in helicopter conduct an aerial inspectionUSGS scientists conduct an aerial inspection of a line of sand vents along the Cook Inlet tide flat at Earthquake Park in Anchorage. Cook Inlet coastal plain liquefaction and bluff raveling near Earthquake Park. These vents opened and ejected sand due to liquefaction triggered by strong shaking during the M7.1 November 30, 2018 Anchorage earthquake.
USGS scientists conduct an aerial inspection of a line of sand vents along the Cook Inlet tide flat at Earthquake Park in Anchorage. Cook Inlet coastal plain liquefaction and bluff raveling near Earthquake Park. These vents opened and ejected sand due to liquefaction triggered by strong shaking during the M7.1 November 30, 2018 Anchorage earthquake.
Earthquake damage of Minnesota Drive onramp, Anchorage, AlaskaEarthquake damage of Minnesota Drive onramp, Anchorage, AlaskaMinnesota Blvd off-ramp failure under repair. Construction crews rebuild the Minnesota Drive onramp in Anchorage on December 1, 2018. Engineered fill beneath the onramp failed the day before as a result of strong shaking during the M7.1 November 30, 2018 Anchorage earthquake.
Minnesota Blvd off-ramp failure under repair. Construction crews rebuild the Minnesota Drive onramp in Anchorage on December 1, 2018. Engineered fill beneath the onramp failed the day before as a result of strong shaking during the M7.1 November 30, 2018 Anchorage earthquake.
2018 Potter Hill landslide 1, Anchorage, AKSlumping along the Alaska Railroad right-of-way evolved into long-runout landslides. The same area failed in earthquakes in 1954 and 1964.
2018 Anchorage Earthquake
Slumping along the Alaska Railroad right-of-way evolved into long-runout landslides. The same area failed in earthquakes in 1954 and 1964.
2018 Anchorage Earthquake
Scientist investigates bedrock canyon, North Fork Fortymile River, AKScientist investigates bedrock canyon, North Fork Fortymile River, AKA scientist investigates a bedrock canyon cut by the North Fork Fortymile River in response to human mining activity in 1900. The smooth grooves on the rock in the lower right corner were formed by river erosion in the last century.
A scientist investigates a bedrock canyon cut by the North Fork Fortymile River in response to human mining activity in 1900. The smooth grooves on the rock in the lower right corner were formed by river erosion in the last century.
Scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbedA scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbed that is now 20 feet above the rapids at The Kink on the North Fork Fortymile River. The Kink resulted from human mining activity that diverted the river in 1900.
A scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbed that is now 20 feet above the rapids at The Kink on the North Fork Fortymile River. The Kink resulted from human mining activity that diverted the river in 1900.
USGS scientist at The Kink, North Fork Fortymile River, AlaskaUSGS scientist at The Kink, North Fork Fortymile River, AlaskaA USGS scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbed that is now the rim of the bedrock canyon at The Kink on North Fork Fortymile River. The Kink resulted from human mining activity that diverted the river in 1900.
A USGS scientist standing on the pre-1900 riverbed that is now the rim of the bedrock canyon at The Kink on North Fork Fortymile River. The Kink resulted from human mining activity that diverted the river in 1900.
- Publications
Filter Total Items: 20
The 2023 US 50-State National Seismic Hazard Model: Overview and implications
The US National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM) was updated in 2023 for all 50 states using new science on seismicity, fault ruptures, ground motions, and probabilistic techniques to produce a standard of practice for public policy and other engineering applications (defined for return periods greater than ∼475 or less than ∼10,000 years). Changes in 2023 time-independent seismic hazard (both increaseAuthorsMark D. Petersen, Allison Shumway, Peter M. Powers, Edward H. Field, Morgan P. Moschetti, Kishor Jaiswal, Kevin R. Milner, Sanaz Rezaeian, Arthur Frankel, Andrea L. Llenos, Andrew J. Michael, Jason M. Altekruse, Sean Kamran Ahdi, Kyle Withers, Charles Mueller, Yuehua Zeng, Robert E. Chase, Leah M. Salditch, Nicolas Luco, Kenneth S. Rukstales, Julie A Herrick, Demi Leafar Girot, Brad T. Aagaard, Adrian Bender, Michael Blanpied, Richard W. Briggs, Oliver S. Boyd, Brandon Clayton, Christopher DuRoss, Eileen L. Evans, Peter J. Haeussler, Alexandra Elise Hatem, Kirstie Lafon Haynie, Elizabeth H. Hearn, Kaj M. Johnson, Zachary Alan Kortum, N. Simon Kwong, Andrew James Makdisi, Henry (Ben) Mason, Daniel McNamara, Devin McPhillips, P. Okubo, Morgan T. Page, Fred Pollitz, Justin Rubinstein, Bruce E. Shaw, Zheng-Kang Shen, Brian Shiro, James Andrew Smith, William J. Stephenson, Eric M. Thompson, Jessica Ann Thompson Jobe, Erin Wirth, Robert C. WitterRapid active thrust faulting at the northern Alaska Range front
Plate convergence rates strongly influence seismicity and mountain building inboard of convergent margins, but the distribution and kinematics of structures accommodating farfield convergence can be elusive. In interior Alaska, Yakutat microplate convergence drives late Pleistocene–recent right slip on the Denali fault, but westward-decreasing slip rates leave substantial residual Yakutat motion uAuthorsAdrian Bender, Richard O. Lease, Tammy M. Rittenour, James V. JonesYukon River incision drove organic carbon burial in the Bering Sea during global climate changes at 2.6 and 1 Ma
River erosion affects the carbon cycle and thus climate by exporting terrigenous carbon to seafloor sediment and by nourishing CO2-consuming marine life. The Yukon River–Bering Sea system preserves rare source-to-sink records of these processes across profound changes in global climate during the past 5 million years (Ma). Here, we expand the terrestrial erosion record by dating terraces along theAuthorsAdrian Bender, Richard O. Lease, Lee B. Corbett, Paul R. Bierman, Marc W. Caffee, James V. Jones, Douglas C. KreinerBedrock gorge incision via anthropogenic meander cutoff
Bedrock river-gorge incision represents a fundamental landscape-shaping process, but a dearth of observational data at >10 yr timescales impedes understanding of gorge formation. I quantify 102 yr rates and processes of gorge incision using historical records, field observations, and topographic and image analysis of a human-caused bedrock meander cutoff along the North Fork Fortymile River in AlaAuthorsAdrian BenderGeomorphic expression and slip rate of the Fairweather fault, southeast Alaska, and evidence for predecessors of the 1958 rupture
Active traces of the southern Fairweather fault were revealed by light detection and ranging (lidar) and show evidence for transpressional deformation between North America and the Yakutat block in southeast Alaska. We map the Holocene geomorphic expression of tectonic deformation along the southern 30 km of the Fairweather fault, which ruptured in the 1958 moment magnitude 7.8 earthquake. DigitalAuthorsRobert C. Witter, Adrian Bender, Katherine Scharer, Christopher DuRoss, Peter J. Haeussler, Richard O. LeaseExtreme Quaternary plate boundary exhumation and strike slip localized along the southern Fairweather fault, Alaska, USA
The Fairweather fault (southeastern Alaska, USA) is Earth’s fastest-slipping intracontinental strike-slip fault, but its long-term role in localizing Yakutat–(Pacific–)North America plate motion is poorly constrained. This plate boundary fault transitions northward from pure strike slip to transpression where it comes onshore and undergoes a <25°, 30-km-long restraining double bend. To the east, aAuthorsRichard O. Lease, Peter J. Haeussler, Robert C. Witter, Daniel F. Stockli, Adrian Bender, Harvey Kelsey, Paul O'SullivanDating by cosmogenic nuclides
Since the 1990s, cosmogenic nuclides have revolutionized the study of Earth surface processes, particularly the understanding of rates and dates. These nuclides, including 3He, 10Be, 14C, 21Ne, 26Al, and 36Cl, enable dating of landforms and the measurement of erosion rates both at the scale of drainage basins and at specific locations on Earth's surface. Cosmogenic nuclides are produced at low ratAuthorsPaul R. Bierman, Adrian Bender, Andrew J. Christ, Lee B. Corbett, Christopher T. Halsted, Eric W. Portenga, Amanda H. SchmidtAncient rivers and critical minerals in eastern Alaska
No abstract available.AuthorsAdrian Bender, Richard O. Lease, James V. Jones, Douglas C. KreinerLate Cenozoic climate change paces landscape adjustments to Yukon River capture
Late Cenozoic cooling and changes in glacial–interglacial cycle tempo are thought to increase global rates of erosion starting ~3 million years ago (Ma). Bedrock rivers set rates and patterns of erosion in most landscapes, but constraints on river response to late Cenozoic climate change remain elusive. Here, we determine cosmogenic isotope and luminescence ages of well-preserved bedrock terracesAuthorsAdrian Bender, Richard O. Lease, Lee B. Corbett, Paul R. Bierman, Marc Caffee, Tammy M. RittenourGround failure triggered by shaking during the November 30, 2018, magnitude 7.1 Anchorage, Alaska, earthquake
We developed an initial inventory of ground failure features from the November 30, 2018, magnitude 7.1 Anchorage earthquake. This inventory of 153 features is from ground-based observations soon after the earthquake (December 5–10) that include the presence or absence of liquefaction, landslides, and individual crack traces of lateral spreads and incipient landslides. This is not a complete inventAuthorsAlex R. R. Grant, Randall W. Jibson, Robert C. Witter, Kate E. Allstadt, Eric M. Thompson, Adrian M. BenderGround failure from the Anchorage, Alaska, earthquake of 30 November 2018
Investigation of ground failure triggered by the 2018 MwMw 7.1 Anchorage earthquake showed that landslides, liquefaction, and ground cracking all occurred and caused significant damage. Shallow rock falls and rock slides were the most abundant types of landslides, but they occurred in smaller numbers than global models that are based on earthquake magnitude predict; this might result from the 2018AuthorsRandall W. Jibson, Alex R. R. Grant, Robert C. Witter, Kate E. Allstadt, Eric M. Thompson, Adrian BenderThe 30 November 2018 Mw7.1 Anchorage Earthquake
The Mw 7.1 47 km deep earthquake that occurred on 30 November 2018 had deep societal impacts across southcentral Alaska and exhibited phenomena of broad scientific interest. We document observations that point to future directions of research and hazard mitigation. The rupture mechanism, aftershocks, and deformation of the mainshock are consistent with extension inside the Pacific plate near the dAuthorsMichael E. West, Adrian Bender, Matthew Gardine, Lea Gardine, Kara Gately, Peter J. Haeussler, Wael Hassan, Franz Meyer, Cole Richards, Natalia Ruppert, Carl Tape, John Thornley, Robert Witter
*Disclaimer: Listing outside positions with professional scientific organizations on this Staff Profile are for informational purposes only and do not constitute an endorsement of those professional scientific organizations or their activities by the USGS, Department of the Interior, or U.S. Government