Dynamic risk from Mexican wolves and mountain lions influences elk foraging behavior

Foraging time is a major component of ungulate activity budgets but can be limited by anti-predator behaviors (e.g., vigilance). Multitasking can reduce the nutritional costs of vigilance under heightened predation risk, but this may depend on the response of prey to risk from multiple predators across a complex spatiotemporal landscape. Mexican gray wolves (Canis lupus baileyi) and mountain lions (Puma concolor) are primary predators for elk (Cervus canadensis) in the Mexican wolf experimental population area in east-central Arizona and west-central New Mexico. We observed elk foraging across varying levels of wolf risk throughout all seasons and diel periods to quantify proportions of foraging, intense vigilance, and multitasking at the individual and herd levels. We quantified encounter and kill risk from Mexican wolves and mountain lions using habitat selection functions and utilization distributions. We modeled elk behaviors as functions of predicted risk for both predators in addition to temporal and environmental covariates and accounted for human presence. Our results indicate that individual elk reduced foraging in areas with higher predicted risk from Mexican wolves or mountain lions and increased intense vigilance and multitasking in areas with higher wolf risk. A reduction in the proportion of bedded elk in the herd during all diel periods under increased wolf risk supports previous findings. These results also suggest that elk compensate for higher intense vigilance and reduced foraging during foraging bouts by increasing cumulative foraging bouts per day at the cost of resting. Additionally, the probability of multitasking for individuals depended on an interaction between short- and long-term wolf risk, and the likelihood of intense vigilance was highest under the greatest combined spatial and temporal risk from wolves. This research provides insight into the fine-scale and complex behavioral responses of elk to their primary predators and implies a need for researchers to consider these non-consumptive effects in future studies of predator–prey dynamics.