Australia

During 2024, the country’s nickel mining sector continued to face pressure from further decreases in nickel prices owing to oversupply of nickel in the global market; as a result, production at several mines was suspended or placed into care-and-maintenance status. Lynas Rare Earths Ltd. began first commercial production at the Kalgoorlie Rare Earths Processing Facility in Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Western Australia. Kimberley Mineral Sands (Pty.) Ltd. ramped up production at the Thunderbird mineral sands mine. Buxton Resources Ltd., Green Critical Minerals Ltd., and Lincoln Minerals Ltd. continued development of their respective graphite projects. 

Introduction 

In 2024, Australia was the world’s first-ranked producer of industrial garnet (estimated), accounting for 47% of global production; rutile (estimated), 43%; iron ore (Fe content), 38%; lithium (excluding the United States production), 37% (estimated); and zirconium mineral concentrates, 31%. The country was the second-ranked producer of bauxite (excluding the United States production), accounting for 23% (estimated) of global production; alumina, 12%; and lead (estimated), 10%. The country was the third-ranked producer of gold, manganese (estimated), and zinc, each accounting for 9% of global production, and rare earths (estimated), 8%. The country was the fourth-ranked producer of ilmenite (estimated), accounting for 7% of global production and cobalt (estimated), 2%. The country was the fifth-ranked producer of salt, accounting for 4% of global production, and the sixth-ranked producer of silicon metal (excluding the United States production), accounting for 0.9% (estimated). The country was the seventh-ranked producer of nickel accounting for 3% of global production; aluminum, magnesium compounds (estimated), tantalum (estimated), 2% each; and antimony, 1%. The country was the eighth-ranked producer of silver and tin, each accounting for 4% of global production; and the ninth-ranked producer of mined copper and refined cadmium, each accounting for 3% of global production. The country was the fourth-ranked producer of uranium (estimated), accounting for 8% of global production (Production table; Callaghan, 2026; Ewing, 2026a, b; Flanagan, 2026; Friedline, 2026a, b; Hartingh, 2026; Jaskula, 2026; Johnston, 2025a, b; Kim, 2026; Klochko, 2026a, b; Londono, 2026; MacGregor, 2026;  Merrill, 2026a, b; Olson, 2026; Schnebele, 2026; Sheaffer, 2026; Stewart, 2026; Tolcin, 2026; Tuck, 2026; World Nuclear Association, 2026). 

Minerals in the National Economy 

According to the International Monetary Fund, Australia’s nominal gross domestic product (GDP) was 2.72 trillion Australian dollars (AUD) (\$1.80 trillion)¹ in 2024, and the country’s real GDP increased by 1.0% from 2023. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the gross value added (GVA) of the mining and quarrying sector increased by 0.1% to \$193 billion, accounting for 11% of Australia’s nominal GDP. Iron ore mining accounted for 38% of the sectoral GVA, followed by natural gas and petroleum extraction (27%), coal mining (20%), other mining (10%), and exploration and mining services (5%) (International Monetary Fund, 2025; Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2026a). 

Capital expenditure towards the mining industry totaled \$34.4 billion in 2024, an increase of 2% compared with that in 2023. Investment in natural gas and petroleum extraction increased by 9% to \$12 billion; nonmetallic mineral mining, by 8% to \$2.0 billion. Investment in metallic ore mining decreased by 2% to \$14 billion; coal mining, by 3% to $5 billion; and exploration and other mining services, by 6% to \$1.2 billion (Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2025). 

The mineral industry employed approximately 235,000 individuals at the end of June 2024, which was an increase of 7% compared with approximately 219,000 at the end of June 2023 and accounted for about 2% of Australia’s total employment. Metallic ore mining accounted for 43% of sectoral employment, followed by exploration and other mining support services (22%), coal mining (20%), natural gas and petroleum extraction (8%), and nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying (7%) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2025, table 3; 2026c, table 1).  

Government Policies and Programs 

In Australia’s three-tiered government system—local, State or Territory, and Federal—each State or Territory establishes its own mineral sector legal framework and has the authority to grant mining rights. Mineral resources are considered owned by either the Federal or State governments. The Government placed nickel on the critical mineral list in February 2024, allowing nickel-producing companies to access financing through the \$2.6 billion Critical Minerals Facility financing program and other critical-minerals-related grant programs. The Critical Minerals List was expanded to 31 commodities; the government also maintained a Strategic Mineral List which contained 5 commodities (Geoscience Australia, 2020, p. 18–20; Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2024a; b). More-extensive coverage of Government policies and programs can be found in previous editions of this chapter in the U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, volume III, Area Reports—International—Asia and the Pacific, which are available in the "Publications" section below.

Production 

Data on mineral production are in the Production table (formerly table 1). 

Structure of the Mineral Industry 

The Federal Government and State and Territory governments were not engaged in the exploration for nor development of mineral resources. All exploration and mining operations were undertaken by private entities. The mineral industry had the largest share of foreign ownership among all of Australia’s industries. At the yearend of June 2025 (the latest year for which detailed data were available), 71% of the total number of mining businesses were solely Australian owned, 8.5% of mining businesses were less than 10% foreign owned, 5.2% of mining businesses were between 10% and 50% foreign owned, and 15.2% of mining businesses were greater than 50% foreign owned (Geoscience Australia, 2020, p. 18; Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2026b). The facilities table (formerly table 2) is a list of major mineral industry facilities. 

Mineral Trade 

In 2024, Australia’s total goods exports were valued at \$341 billion, a decrease of 8% compared with those in 2023. Australia’s nonfuel mineral exports totaled \$147 billion in 2024, a decrease of 7% compared with those in 2023. The value of Australia’s mineral fuel exports totaled \$114 billion in 2024, a decreased of 12% compared with those in 2023. The leading mineral commodity in terms of export value was iron ore (valued at \$82 billion), followed by liquid natural gas (LNG) (\$45 billion), metallurgical coal (\$32 billion), thermal coal and gold (\$24 billion each), crude oil and other refinery feedstock ($8 billion), and alumina ($7 billion). Mineral commodities for which exports value increased by 10% or more in 2024 included lithium (lithium hydroxide), by 480%; refined silver, by 172%; petroleum refinery products, by 55%; bauxite, by 49%; tin, by 47%; alumina, by 27%; gold, by 26%; and lead, by 11%. The largest percent decreases in exports, by value, included that of lithium (spodumene ore), by 74%; diamonds, by 61% (estimated); intermediate and refined nickel, by 40%; opal gemstones, by 29%; thermal coal, by 22%; and metallurgical coal and sapphires, by 14% each. The increase in the total values of bauxite and tin exports was owed to both increased exported volume, as well as increased average prices. The decreased value of exported lithium (spodumene ore) was attributed to lower lithium prices; volumes of exported lithium (spodumene ore) increased in 2024 (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2025; Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2025, table 17, 23, 30, 35). 

In 2024, Australia’s total goods imports were valued at \$297 billion, an increase of 3.8% compared with those in 2023. Mineral commodity imports were valued at \$51 billion, of which mineral fuels imports accounted for 74% (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2025). In 2024, Australia’s major export trading partners were China (which accounted for 35% of Australia’s total export value), Japan (14%), the Republic of Korea (8%), India and the United States (5% each), and Singapore and Taiwan (4% each). In 2024, the value of goods exported to China (the country’s leading trade partner of goods) decreased by 12% to \$118 billion. Australia’s major mineral commodity exports to China, by volume, included iron ore (including pellets), 766 million metric tons (Mt); thermal coal, 74 Mt; LNG, 27 Mt; metallurgical coal, 10 Mt; zinc ores and concentrates, 1.0 Mt; copper ores and concentrates, 200,000 metric tons (t); refined copper, 143,000 t; and refined and unrefined gold, 28 t. The value of exports to Japan decreased by 17% to \$48 billion. Australia’s major mineral commodity exports to Japan included LNG, 81 Mt; thermal coal, 75 Mt; iron ore (including pellets), 50 Mt; metallurgical coal, 36 Mt; aluminum, 348,000 t; zinc ores and concentrates, 117,000 t; and copper ores and concentrates, 107,000 t. In 2024, the value of exports to the Republic of Korea decreased by 6% to \$26 billion. Australia’s major mineral commodity exports to the Republic of Korea included aluminum (353,000 t), zinc ores and concentrates (302,000 t), and copper ores and concentrates (62,000 t). The Republic of Korea also imported 50 Mt of iron ore from Australia in 2024. China, Malaysia, and Taiwan were substantial importers of refined copper from Australia, accounting for 36%, 18%, and 16% of Australia’s exports of refined copper, respectively. China (including Hong Kong) and the United Kingdom received 43% and 18% of Australia’s gold (refined and unrefined) exports, respectively, followed Singapore (9%), and the United States (7%) (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2025; Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2025, table 19).  

In 2024, Australia’s total goods exports to the United States were valued at \$16 billion, an increase of 14% compared with those in 2023. Australia’s leading mineral commodity exports to the United States, by value, included aluminum ores and concentrates (\$38 million); natural abrasives (\$14 million); other ores and concentrates (\$11 million); crude minerals ($9 million); precious metal ores and concentrates (excluding gold) ($3 million) (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2025; 2026). 

Commodity Review 

Bauxite.—In 2024, Rio Tinto Ltd. produced 37.1 Mt of bauxite from the Weipa Project, which included the Amrun, Andoom, and East Weipa Mines, and 12.7 Mt from the Gove Mine. At yearend 2024, probable and proven mineral reserves of the Amrun Mine were estimated at 978 Mt grading 54.4% aluminum oxide; of the Andoom and East Weipa Mines, 56 Mt grading 50.5% aluminum oxide; and of the Gove Mine, 48 Mt grading 50.0% aluminum oxide. Alcoa of Australia Ltd. (Alcoa Corp. of the United States, 60%, and Alumina Ltd., 40%), which operated the Darling Range mines (including the Huntly and Willowdale Mines), produced 27.7 Mt of bauxite in 2024. Probable and proven mineral reserves at Darling Range were estimated at 423.7 Mt grading 30.7% aluminum oxide (Facilities table; Alcoa Corp., 2025, p. 33, 36; Rio Tinto plc, 2025, p. 275, 279).  

Graphite.—In 2024, a number of companies continued development of graphite mines and processing facilities. Buxton Resources Ltd. completed a drilling campaign at its wholly owned Graphite Bull project in Western Australia. The company announced an updated mineral resources estimate of 20.7 Mt grading 10.8% total graphitic content. Green Critical Minerals Ltd. (80% share) and NH3 Clean Energy Ltd (20%) continued development of the Mcintosh Graphite project in Western Australia. In 2024, the company completed an updated mineral resource estimate of 30.2 Mt grading 4.4% total graphitic content and expected to complete a prefeasibility study (PFS) in the second quarter of 2025. During the year, Lincoln Minerals Ltd. completed a PFS for the Kookaburra Graphite project located in South Australia on the Eyre Peninsula. The PFS reported mineral resources estimated at 12.8 Mt grading 7.6% total graphitic content and evaluated that construction and first mining could begin by yearend 2027. The company expected average production of 10,000 metric tons per year (t/yr) of graphite concentrate during the first 2 years before an increase to 62,000 t/yr during years 3 through 7 (Buxton Resources Ltd., 2025, p. 4, 5; Green Critical Minerals Ltd., 2025, p. 6, 20, 29; Lincoln Minerals Ltd., 2024, p. 1, 4, 5, 28). 

Iron Ore.—Western Australia remained Australia’s leading iron-ore-producing State, accounting for 99% of the country’s total iron ore production in 2024. South Australia, Tasmania, and the Northern Territory accounted for 0.6%, 0.3%, and 0.2%, respectively. The Pilbara Region in northwestern Western Australia was the country’s major iron-ore-producing region and the location of 17 iron mines and 4 port terminals owned by Rio Tinto, which was the largest iron ore producer in Australia. In 2024, Pilbara operations produced 328 Mt of iron ore compared with 332 Mt in 2023; the slight decrease in production was attributed to mine depletion and above-average rainfall. The company’s Gudai-Darri iron ore mine reached its nameplate capacity of 50 million metric tons per year (Mt/yr) in the fourth quarter of 2024 (Facilities table; Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2025, table 28; Rio Tinto plc, 2025, p. 3, 24, 25). 

Lithium.—In 2024, the country produced 3.9 Mt of spodumene ore and concentrate, an increase of 16% compared with 3.4 Mt in 2023. Production of lithium hydroxide totaled 12,228 t in 2024, an increase of 180% compared with that in 2023. During the year, export volumes of spodumene ore and concentrate increased by 11% to 3.96 Mt; whereas the value of spodumene ore and concentrate exports decreased by 74% to AUD5 billion ($3 billion). In 2024, the average price of spodumene ore and concentrate was \$970 per metric ton, which was a 74% decrease compared with the average 2023 price. The country exported 14,203 t of lithium hydroxide valued at AUD248 million (\$164 million) in 2024 (Production table; Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2025, table 30). 

In 2024, Pilbara Minerals Ltd. produced 813,509 t of spodumene concentrate and 73 t of tantalite concentrate as byproduct at the Pilgan plant. Covalent Lithium Ltd., a joint venture between Wesfarmers Ltd. (50% equity interest) and Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A. (50%), continued development of the Covalent lithium project. The project included a mine and concentrator at Mount Holland and a lithium hydroxide refinery at Kwinana in Western Australia. In March, the company commissioned the mine and concentrator. The Kwinana refinery was under construction at yearend and was planned to begin operation in the first half of 2025 with a designed capacity of 50,000 t/yr of lithium hydroxide (Pilbara Minerals Ltd., 2024, p. 19; 2025, p. 19; Wesfarmers Ltd., 2024, p. 13, 36–38). 

Nickel and Cobalt.—During 2024, the country’s nickel mining sector continued to face pressures from further decreases in nickel prices owing to oversupply of nickel in the global market; as a result, production at several mines was suspended or placed into care-and-maintenance status. In 2024, the country produced 99,000 t of mined nickel, which was a decrease of 34% compared with 149,000 t in 2023. The country produced 4,800 t of mined cobalt, which was a decrease of 7% compared with 5,100 t (revised) in 2023. Western Australia produced the entirety of the country’s mined nickel production in 2024. The export value of nickel ores and concentrates decreased by 65% to AUD181 million (\$119 million) in 2024 compared with that in 2023. In 2024, the export value of intermediate and refined nickel was estimated to have decreased by 40% to AUD2.3 billion (\$1.5 billion). In 2024, the average London Metal Exchange price of refined nickel was \$16,825 per metric ton, which was a 22% decrease compared with the average 2023 price (Production table; Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2025, table 31). 

BHP Group Ltd. transitioned its Nickel West operations to suspension or care-and-maintenance status by yearend. This included the suspension of mining and processing operations at the Kalgoorlie nickel smelter, the Kambalda nickel toll concentrator, the Kwinana nickel refinery, the Leinster nickel and cobalt operation, and the Mount Keith nickel and cobalt operation. Wyloo (Pty.) Ltd. transitioned its Kambalda nickel mines into care-and-maintenance status during the first half of 2024. During the second half of 2024, First Quantum Minerals Ltd. announced that it would suspend ore-processing operations at the Ravensthorpe nickel and cobalt mine. The company had not been mining nickel ore but had been processing ore stockpiles to produce concentrate (BHP Group Ltd., 2024a, b; First Quantum Minerals Ltd., 2024; Wyloo (Pty.) Ltd., 2024). 

Rare Earths.—In 2024, the country was estimated to have produced 31,000 t of rare-earth-oxide equivalent, which was a record production and an estimated 7% increase compared with that in 2023. In 2024, Lynas Rare Earths Ltd. continued construction and development of the capacity expansion project at the Mount Weld Mine and concentration plant in Western Australia. The expansion was expected to increase throughput capacity to 1.3 Mt/yr from 300,000 t/yr. In June, Lynas Rare Earths began first production at the Kalgoorlie Rare Earths Processing Facility in Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Western Australia. Lynas Rare Earths announced that mixed rare-earth carbonate produced at the Kalgoorlie Rare Earths Processing Facility was processed at the Lynas Malaysia plant. The Mount Weld Mine expansion project was expected to enable the Malaysia plant to increase its production to 12,000 t/yr of neodymium-praseodymium oxide equivalent from the existing 7,000 t/yr. In fiscal year 2024, which began July 1, 2023, and ended June 30, 2024, production of concentrate decreased by 8% compared with that in the previous year owing to a maintenance shutdown, shipping delays, and construction work. During the year, the company completed an exploration drilling program at the Mount Weld Mine. In August, the company announced updated proven and probable mineral reserves at the Mount Weld Mine, which were estimated to be 32 Mt containing 6.4% total rare-earth oxide equivalent, using a 2.8% cutoff grade (Production table; Lynas Rare Earths Ltd., 2022, p. 10; 2024a, p. 2, 4, 14, 17, 108; 2024b, p. 3). 

In 2024, Iluka Resources Ltd. continued construction of the integrated Eneabba rare-earth oxide facility. The facility was expected to have a nameplate capacity between 17,500 and 23,000 t/yr of rare-earth oxide. Production was expected to include dysprosium, neodymium, praseodymium, and terbium oxides. Iluka expected the facility to be commissioned in 2027. During the year, the company began construction of the Balrandal Heavy Mineral Sands project in New South Wales. Among other mineral sands, the mine was expected to produce rare-earth concentrate, which was expected to be supplied to the Eneabba facility (Iluka Resources Ltd., 2023, p. 39; 2025, p. 7, 9, 24). 

Titanium.—Kimberley Mineral Sands (Pty.) Ltd., a 50–50 joint venture between Sheffield Resources Ltd. of Australia and YGH Australia Investment (Pty.) Ltd. (Yansteel) (a wholly owned subsidiary of Tangshan Yanshan Iron and Steel Co., Ltd. of China), operated the Thunderbird mineral sands mine. The Thunderbird operation consisted of a heavy-mineral-sands mine and a processing plant that produced leucoxene, ilmenite, and zircon concentrates. The mine was commissioned in October 2023, ramped up production in 2024, and had an expected annual processing capacity of 12 Mt/yr of heavy-mineral-sands throughput. The operation was located on the Dampier Peninsula in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, and concentrate was shipped to global offtake partners through the Port of Broome. As of June 2024, proved and probable mineral reserves at the Thunderbird deposit were estimated to be 750 Mt containing 11% heavy minerals (Sheffield Resources Ltd., 2024, p. 4, 7, 17, 27). 

Vanadium.—Australia Vanadium Ltd. continued the development of the Australian Vanadium project in Western Australia. In February, the company acquired a 100% equity interest in Technology Metals Australia Ltd. and its adjoining vanadium ore body at yearend. After the merger, the company completed an optimized feasibility study to integrate the adjoining projects. During the year, Australia Vanadium reevaluated the combined deposit and mine plan, including a mine site and concentrator at Meekatharra and a vanadium pentoxide plant at Tenindewa in Western Australia. During the year, the company also worked to obtain regulatory approvals for the project. Proved and probable mineral reserves at the Australia Vanadium project deposit were estimated to be 30.9 Mt containing 1.1% total vanadium pentoxide using a 0.7% cutoff grade (Australia Vanadium Ltd., 2024, p. 14, 29). 

Production table

(Metric tons, gross weight, unless otherwise specified)

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