Visualizing the Invisible: Causes, Consequences, Changes, and Management of Streamflow Depletion Across the U.S.
Streamflow is declining in many parts of the United States (US) due to factors including groundwater pumping, land use change, and climate change. Streamflow depletion, a reduction in groundwater discharge to a stream due to human activities such as pumping and/or land use change, tends to evolve slowly and can be entirely invisible for many years to decades. This is because streamflow depletion can be masked by the natural and/or climate change-induced variability in streamflow, and groundwater storage can buffer the impacts on streams. The negative effects on both anthropogenic and ecological systems can evolve over decades or more, and specific causes and potential solutions to these issues are often difficult to discern. The invisible nature of streamflow depletion implies that water managers should be made aware of potential depletion that may impact their region as conditions develop. We propose to synthesize existing data from the USGS and other sources, and use these data to: (1) quantify changes in streamflow and baseflow through trend analysis of available data; (2) attribute changes in streamflow and baseflow to climate change and land use change; (3) evaluate simple hydrologic metrics for appropriateness, robustness, and ability to capture human impacts on the stream environment; and (4) create a streamflow depletion visualization tool to facilitate education and information transfer. The proposed project develops both the next generation of scientific tools for the critical issue of streamflow depletion and an accessible and visual way of transferring this knowledge of streamflow depletion.
Principal Investigators:
Andrea Brookfield (Kansas Geological Survey, University of Kansas)
Lauren Hay (USGS)
Will Farmer (USGS)
Mary Hill (University of Kansas)
Samuel Zipper (University of Victoria)
Publications
- Ayers, J.R., Villarini, G., Schilling, K., Jones, C., Brookfield, A., Zipper, S.C., and Farmer, W.H., 2022, The Role of Climate in Monthly Baseflow Changes across the Continental United States: Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, v. 27, no. 5, p. 04022006, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0002170.
- Brookfield, A.E., Zipper, S., Kendall, A.D., Ajami, H., and Deines, J.M., 2024, Estimating Groundwater Pumping for Irrigation: A Method Comparison: Groundwater, v. 62, no. 1, p. 15–33, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.13336.
- Lapides, D.A., Maitland, B.M., Zipper, S.C., Latzka, A.W., Pruitt, A., and Greve, R., 2022, Advancing environmental flows approaches to streamflow depletion management: Journal of Hydrology, v. 607, p. 127447, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127447.
- Lapides, D.A., Zipper, S., and Hammond, J.C., 2023, Identifying hydrologic signatures associated with streamflow depletion caused by groundwater pumping: Hydrological Processes, v. 37, no. 4, p. e14877, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14877.
- Lapides, D.A., Zipper, S., and Hammond, J.C., 2026, Potential Impacts of Groundwater Pumping on Stream Temperature Are Greatest in Streams With Substantial Cold Groundwater Inflows: Hydrological Processes, v. 40, no. 3, p. e70444, accessed March 17, 2026, at https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.70444.
- Zipper, S., Brookfield, A., Ajami, H., Ayers, J.R., Beightel, C., Fienen, M.N., Gleeson, T., Hammond, J., Hill, M., Kendall, A.D., Kerr, B., Lapides, D., Porter, M., Parimalarenganayaki, S., and others, 2024, Streamflow Depletion Caused by Groundwater Pumping: Fundamental Research Priorities for Management‐Relevant Science: Water Resources Research, v. 60, no. 5, p. e2023WR035727, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR035727.
- Zipper, S.C., Farmer, W.H., Brookfield, A., Ajami, H., Reeves, H.W., Wardropper, C., Hammond, J.C., Gleeson, T., and Deines, J.M., 2022, Quantifying Streamflow Depletion from Groundwater Pumping: A Practical Review of Past and Emerging Approaches for Water Management: JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, v. 58, no. 2, p. 289–312, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1111/1752-1688.12998.
- Source: USGS Sciencebase (id: 5d52ff71e4b01d82ce8e296f)
Potential impacts of groundwater pumping on stream temperature are greatest in streams with substantial cold groundwater inflows Potential impacts of groundwater pumping on stream temperature are greatest in streams with substantial cold groundwater inflows
Streamflow depletion caused by groundwater pumping: Fundamental research priorities for management-relevant science Streamflow depletion caused by groundwater pumping: Fundamental research priorities for management-relevant science
Estimating groundwater pumping for irrigation: A method comparison Estimating groundwater pumping for irrigation: A method comparison
Identifying hydrologic signatures associated with streamflow depletion caused by groundwater pumping Identifying hydrologic signatures associated with streamflow depletion caused by groundwater pumping
On the role of climate in monthly baseflow changes across the continental United States On the role of climate in monthly baseflow changes across the continental United States
Quantifying streamflow depletion from groundwater pumping: A practical review of past and emerging approaches for water management Quantifying streamflow depletion from groundwater pumping: A practical review of past and emerging approaches for water management
William H Farmer, Ph.D. (Former Employee)
USGS Drought Science Coordinator (acting)
Research Physical Scientist
Streamflow is declining in many parts of the United States (US) due to factors including groundwater pumping, land use change, and climate change. Streamflow depletion, a reduction in groundwater discharge to a stream due to human activities such as pumping and/or land use change, tends to evolve slowly and can be entirely invisible for many years to decades. This is because streamflow depletion can be masked by the natural and/or climate change-induced variability in streamflow, and groundwater storage can buffer the impacts on streams. The negative effects on both anthropogenic and ecological systems can evolve over decades or more, and specific causes and potential solutions to these issues are often difficult to discern. The invisible nature of streamflow depletion implies that water managers should be made aware of potential depletion that may impact their region as conditions develop. We propose to synthesize existing data from the USGS and other sources, and use these data to: (1) quantify changes in streamflow and baseflow through trend analysis of available data; (2) attribute changes in streamflow and baseflow to climate change and land use change; (3) evaluate simple hydrologic metrics for appropriateness, robustness, and ability to capture human impacts on the stream environment; and (4) create a streamflow depletion visualization tool to facilitate education and information transfer. The proposed project develops both the next generation of scientific tools for the critical issue of streamflow depletion and an accessible and visual way of transferring this knowledge of streamflow depletion.
Principal Investigators:
Andrea Brookfield (Kansas Geological Survey, University of Kansas)
Lauren Hay (USGS)
Will Farmer (USGS)
Mary Hill (University of Kansas)
Samuel Zipper (University of Victoria)
Publications
- Ayers, J.R., Villarini, G., Schilling, K., Jones, C., Brookfield, A., Zipper, S.C., and Farmer, W.H., 2022, The Role of Climate in Monthly Baseflow Changes across the Continental United States: Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, v. 27, no. 5, p. 04022006, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0002170.
- Brookfield, A.E., Zipper, S., Kendall, A.D., Ajami, H., and Deines, J.M., 2024, Estimating Groundwater Pumping for Irrigation: A Method Comparison: Groundwater, v. 62, no. 1, p. 15–33, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.13336.
- Lapides, D.A., Maitland, B.M., Zipper, S.C., Latzka, A.W., Pruitt, A., and Greve, R., 2022, Advancing environmental flows approaches to streamflow depletion management: Journal of Hydrology, v. 607, p. 127447, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127447.
- Lapides, D.A., Zipper, S., and Hammond, J.C., 2023, Identifying hydrologic signatures associated with streamflow depletion caused by groundwater pumping: Hydrological Processes, v. 37, no. 4, p. e14877, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14877.
- Lapides, D.A., Zipper, S., and Hammond, J.C., 2026, Potential Impacts of Groundwater Pumping on Stream Temperature Are Greatest in Streams With Substantial Cold Groundwater Inflows: Hydrological Processes, v. 40, no. 3, p. e70444, accessed March 17, 2026, at https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.70444.
- Zipper, S., Brookfield, A., Ajami, H., Ayers, J.R., Beightel, C., Fienen, M.N., Gleeson, T., Hammond, J., Hill, M., Kendall, A.D., Kerr, B., Lapides, D., Porter, M., Parimalarenganayaki, S., and others, 2024, Streamflow Depletion Caused by Groundwater Pumping: Fundamental Research Priorities for Management‐Relevant Science: Water Resources Research, v. 60, no. 5, p. e2023WR035727, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR035727.
- Zipper, S.C., Farmer, W.H., Brookfield, A., Ajami, H., Reeves, H.W., Wardropper, C., Hammond, J.C., Gleeson, T., and Deines, J.M., 2022, Quantifying Streamflow Depletion from Groundwater Pumping: A Practical Review of Past and Emerging Approaches for Water Management: JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, v. 58, no. 2, p. 289–312, accessed March 25, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.1111/1752-1688.12998.
- Source: USGS Sciencebase (id: 5d52ff71e4b01d82ce8e296f)