Jennifer A Fike
Jennifer Fike is a Geneticist and Lab Manager at the Fort Collins Science Center.
Jennifer Fike is a Geneticist at the Fort Collins Science Center and lab manager for the Molecular Ecology Lab (MEL). She specializes in all aspects of laboratory benchwork including DNA extraction, PCR, microsatellite development, microsatellite genotyping, Sanger sequencing, qPCR, ddRAD library preparation, shotgun sequencing, SNP genotyping, working with non-invasive genetic samples and eDNA. The data she generates is used in a wide range of genetic and genomic studies including species identification, sex determination, parentage analysis, landscape genetics/genomics and genetic mark-recapture.
Professional Experience
2009 to present, Geneticist, USGS Fort Collins Science Center, Fort Collins, CO
2006-2009, Research Assistant, Wildlife Genetics Laboratory, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
2003-2006, Laboratory Technician VII, Wildlife Genetics Laboratory, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Education and Certifications
M.S. in Wildlife/Fisheries Biology, Frostburg State University, 2005
B.S. in Biology, Furman University, 2000
Science and Products
Filter Total Items: 14
Metagenetic analysis of stream community composition based on environmental DNA Metagenetic analysis of stream community composition based on environmental DNA
A survey of environmental DNA was performed in Tunison Creek downstream of the USGS Tunison Aquatic Laboratory. The goal of the survey was to characterize the source ecological community at multiple trophic or taxonomic levels by associating DNA fragments with reference databases. Three taxonomically informative genetic loci were used: the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 locus, the
Indiana Bat fecal DNA study, Indianapolis, IN Summer 2008 Indiana Bat fecal DNA study, Indianapolis, IN Summer 2008
The endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) has declined dramatically and continuing threats have made it necessary to understand population dynamics and life history throughout the year. Specifically, demographic information (e.g., population size, reproductive success, survival) from the summer range where females raise their young in maternity colonies is difficult to estimate...
Filter Total Items: 39
Population genetics reveals bidirectional fish movement across the Continental Divide via an interbasin water transfer Population genetics reveals bidirectional fish movement across the Continental Divide via an interbasin water transfer
Interbasin water transfers are becoming an increasingly common tool to satisfy municipal and agricultural water demand, but their impacts on movement and gene flow of aquatic organisms are poorly understood. The Grand Ditch is an interbasin water transfer that diverts water from tributaries of the upper Colorado River on the west side of the Continental Divide to the upper Cache la...
Authors
Audrey Harris, Sara J. Oyler-McCance, Jennifer A. Fike, Matthew P Fairchild, Christopher M Kennedy, Harry J Crockett, Dana L. Winkelman, Yoichiro Kanno
Historical effective population size of North American hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) and challenges to estimating trends in contemporary effective breeding population size from archived samples Historical effective population size of North American hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) and challenges to estimating trends in contemporary effective breeding population size from archived samples
Background Hoary bats (Lasiurus cinereus) are among the bat species most commonly killed by wind turbine strikes in the midwestern United States. The impact of this mortality on species census size is not understood, due in part to the difficulty of estimating population size for this highly migratory and elusive species. Genetic effective population size (Ne) could provide an index of...
Authors
Robert S. Cornman, Jennifer A. Fike, Sara J. Oyler-McCance, Paul M. Cryan
Composition and distribution of fish environmental DNA in an Adirondack watershed Composition and distribution of fish environmental DNA in an Adirondack watershed
Background Environmental DNA (eDNA) surveys are appealing options for monitoring aquatic biodiversity. While factors affecting eDNA persistence, capture and amplification have been heavily studied, watershed-scale surveys of fish communities and our confidence in such need further exploration.Methods We characterized fish eDNA compositions using rapid, low-volume filtering with replicate...
Authors
Robert S. Cornman, James E. McKenna, Jennifer A. Fike
Feral horse space use and genetic characteristics from fecal DNA Feral horse space use and genetic characteristics from fecal DNA
Feral horses (Equus ferus caballus) in the western United States are managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and United States Forest Service in designated areas on public lands with a goal of maintaining populations in balance with multiple uses of the landscape. Small, isolated populations can be at risk of extirpation from stochastic events and deleterious genetic effects...
Authors
Sarah R. B. King, Kathryn A. Schoenecker, Jennifer A. Fike, Sara J. Oyler-McCance
Characterizing range-wide population divergence in an alpine-endemic bird: A comparison of genetic and genomic approaches Characterizing range-wide population divergence in an alpine-endemic bird: A comparison of genetic and genomic approaches
The delineation of intraspecific units that are evolutionarily and demographically distinct is an important step in the development of species-specific management plans. Neutral genetic variation has served as the primary data source for delineating “evolutionarily significant units,” but with recent advances in genomic technology, we now have an unprecedented ability to utilize...
Authors
Kathryn Langin, Cameron L. Aldridge, Jennifer A. Fike, Robert S. Cornman, Kathy M Martin, Greg T Wann, Amy E. Seglund, Michael A Schroeder, David P Benson, Brad C. Fedy, Jessica R. Young, Scott D. Wilson, Don H Wolfe, Clait E. Braun, Sara J. Oyler-McCance
Genetic mark‐recapture analysis of winter faecal pellets allows estimation of population size in Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus Genetic mark‐recapture analysis of winter faecal pellets allows estimation of population size in Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus
The Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus is a species of conservation concern throughout its range in western North America. Since the 1950s, the high count of males at leks has been used as an index for monitoring populations. However, the relationship between this lek‐count index and population size is unclear, and its reliability for assessing population trends has been questioned...
Authors
Jessica E Shyvers, Brett L Walker, Sara J. Oyler-McCance, Jennifer A. Fike, Barry R. Noon
Non-USGS Publications**
Dharmarajan, G., J.C.Beasley, W.S. Beatty, Z.H.Olson, J. A. Fike and Olin E. Rhodes, Jr. 2016. Genetic co-structuring in host parasite systems: Empirical data from raccoons and raccoon ticks. Ecosphere 7(3):e01269
Dharmarajan, G., J.C.Beasley, J. A. Fike and Olin E. Rhodes, Jr. 2014. Effects of landscape, demographic and behavioral factors on kin structure: testing ecological predictions in a mesopredator with high dispersal capability. Animal Conservation. 17(3): 225-234. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12086/full
Fike, J.A., C.A. Hennessy, M.L. Kennedy, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2013. Eleven microsatellite markers for the eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and their utility in fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) and red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus). Conservation Genetics Resources. 5: 679-681.
Dharmarajan, G., J.C.Beasley, J. A. Fike, E. A. Raizman, C. C. Wu, R. M. Pogranichniy and Olin E. Rhodes, Jr. 2012. Effects of kin-structure on disease dynamics in raccoons (Procyon lotor) inhabiting a fragmented landscape. Basic and Applied Ecology. 13:560-567.
Atwood, T.C., J.K. Young, J.P. Beckmann, S.W. Breck, J. Fike, O.E. Rhodes Jr, and K.D. Bristow. 2011. Modeling connectivity of black bears in a desert sky island archipelago. Biological Conservation 144: 2851-2862.
Kimble, S.J, J.A. Fike, O.E. Rhodes, Jr., and R.N. Williams. 2011. Identification of 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci for the eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina). Conservation Genetics Resources 3:65-67.
Hapeman,P., E.K. Latch, J.A. Fike, O.E. Rhodes, and C.W. Kilpatrick. 2011. Landscape Genetics of Fishers (Martes pennanti) in the Northeast: Dispersal Barriers and Historical Influences. Journal of Heredity 102: 251-259.
Unger, S.D., J.A. Fike, T. Sutton, O.E. Rhodes, Jr., and R.N. Williams. 2010. Isolation and development of 12 polymorphic tetranucleotide microsatellite markers for the eastern hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) Conservation GeneticsResources 2:89-91.
Fike, J.A., T.L. DeVault, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Identification of twenty-four polymorphic microsatellite markers for the double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus). Molecular Ecology Resources 9:1183-1185.
Fike, J.A., J.C. Beasley, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Isolation of twenty-one polymorphic microsatellite markers for Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Molecular Ecology Resources 9:1200-1202.
Fike, J.A., G. Athrey, R. Bowman, P.L. Leberg, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Development of twenty-five polymorphic microsatellite markers for the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis). Conservation Genetics 10:1021-1023.
Fike, J.A. and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Characterization of twenty-six polymorphic microsatellite markers for the fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) and their utility in other squirrel species. Conservation Genetics 10:1545-1548.
Dharmarajan, G., J.A. Fike, J.C. Beasley and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Development and characterization of 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis). Molecular Ecology Resources 9:131-133.
Dharmarajan, G., J.A. Fike, J.C. Beasley and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Development and characterization of 14 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the raccoon tick (Ixodes texanus). Molecular Ecology Resources 9:296-298.
Latch, E.K., J.A. Heffelfinger, J.A. Fike, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Species-wide phylogeography of North American mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus): cryptic glacial refugia and postglacial recolonization. Molecular Ecology 18:1730-1745.
Dharmarajan, G., J.C. Beasley, J.A. Fike, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Population genetic structure of raccoons (Procyon lotor) in a fragmented landscape. Canadian J. Zoology 87:814-824.
Drauch, A. M., B.E. Fisher, E.K. Latch, J. A. Fike and O. E. Rhodes, Jr. 2008. Evaluation of a remnant lake sturgeon population’s utility as a source for reintroductions in the Ohio River system. Conservation Genetics 9:1195-1209.
Latch, E.K, D.G. Scognamillo, J.A Fike, M.J. Chamberlain and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2008.Landscape genetics of coastal and inland river otters (Lontra canadensis) in Louisiana. Journal of Heredity 99:265-274.
Victory, E.R., J.C. Glaubitz, J.A. Fike, O.E. Rhodes, Jr. and K.E. Woeste. 2008. Different histories but similar genetic diversity and structure for black walnut in Indiana and Missouri. Pages 436-445, In Jacobs, D.F. and Michler C.H. (eds) Proceedings, 16th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2008 April 8-10: Lafayette, USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station Technical Report NRS-P-24.
Fike, J.A., G. Dharmarajan, A. M. Drauch and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2007. Development of polymorphic microsatellite loci for raccoons (Procyon lotor). Molecular Ecology Notes 7:525-527.
Anderson, S.J., J.A. Fike, G. Dharmarajan, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2007. Characterization of 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci for eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus). Molecular Ecology Notes 7:513-515.
Beheler, A.S., J.A. Fike and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2007. Eight new polymorphic microsatellite loci from the eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe). Conservation Genetics 8:1259-1261.
Beheler, A. S., J. A. Fike, G. Dharmarajan, O. E. Rhodes, Jr., and T. L. Serfass. 2005. Ten new polymorphic microsatellite loci for North American river otters (Lontracanadensis) and their utility in related mustelids. Molecular Ecology Notes 5:602-604.
Beheler, A. S., J. A. Fike, L. M. Murfitt, O. E. Rhodes, Jr., and T. L. Serfass. 2004.Development of polymorphic microsatellite loci for North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) and amplification in related Mustelids. Molecular Ecology Notes 4:56-58.
Fike, J.A., T.L. Serfass, A.S. Beheler and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2004. Evaluation of preservation methods for DNA analyses of river otter scat: Probability of amplification and genotyping accuracy. Proceedings of the XI International Otter Colloquium Volume 21A.
**Disclaimer: The views expressed in Non-USGS publications are those of the author and do not represent the views of the USGS, Department of the Interior, or the U.S. Government.
Science and Products
Filter Total Items: 14
Metagenetic analysis of stream community composition based on environmental DNA Metagenetic analysis of stream community composition based on environmental DNA
A survey of environmental DNA was performed in Tunison Creek downstream of the USGS Tunison Aquatic Laboratory. The goal of the survey was to characterize the source ecological community at multiple trophic or taxonomic levels by associating DNA fragments with reference databases. Three taxonomically informative genetic loci were used: the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 locus, the
Indiana Bat fecal DNA study, Indianapolis, IN Summer 2008 Indiana Bat fecal DNA study, Indianapolis, IN Summer 2008
The endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) has declined dramatically and continuing threats have made it necessary to understand population dynamics and life history throughout the year. Specifically, demographic information (e.g., population size, reproductive success, survival) from the summer range where females raise their young in maternity colonies is difficult to estimate...
Filter Total Items: 39
Population genetics reveals bidirectional fish movement across the Continental Divide via an interbasin water transfer Population genetics reveals bidirectional fish movement across the Continental Divide via an interbasin water transfer
Interbasin water transfers are becoming an increasingly common tool to satisfy municipal and agricultural water demand, but their impacts on movement and gene flow of aquatic organisms are poorly understood. The Grand Ditch is an interbasin water transfer that diverts water from tributaries of the upper Colorado River on the west side of the Continental Divide to the upper Cache la...
Authors
Audrey Harris, Sara J. Oyler-McCance, Jennifer A. Fike, Matthew P Fairchild, Christopher M Kennedy, Harry J Crockett, Dana L. Winkelman, Yoichiro Kanno
Historical effective population size of North American hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) and challenges to estimating trends in contemporary effective breeding population size from archived samples Historical effective population size of North American hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) and challenges to estimating trends in contemporary effective breeding population size from archived samples
Background Hoary bats (Lasiurus cinereus) are among the bat species most commonly killed by wind turbine strikes in the midwestern United States. The impact of this mortality on species census size is not understood, due in part to the difficulty of estimating population size for this highly migratory and elusive species. Genetic effective population size (Ne) could provide an index of...
Authors
Robert S. Cornman, Jennifer A. Fike, Sara J. Oyler-McCance, Paul M. Cryan
Composition and distribution of fish environmental DNA in an Adirondack watershed Composition and distribution of fish environmental DNA in an Adirondack watershed
Background Environmental DNA (eDNA) surveys are appealing options for monitoring aquatic biodiversity. While factors affecting eDNA persistence, capture and amplification have been heavily studied, watershed-scale surveys of fish communities and our confidence in such need further exploration.Methods We characterized fish eDNA compositions using rapid, low-volume filtering with replicate...
Authors
Robert S. Cornman, James E. McKenna, Jennifer A. Fike
Feral horse space use and genetic characteristics from fecal DNA Feral horse space use and genetic characteristics from fecal DNA
Feral horses (Equus ferus caballus) in the western United States are managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and United States Forest Service in designated areas on public lands with a goal of maintaining populations in balance with multiple uses of the landscape. Small, isolated populations can be at risk of extirpation from stochastic events and deleterious genetic effects...
Authors
Sarah R. B. King, Kathryn A. Schoenecker, Jennifer A. Fike, Sara J. Oyler-McCance
Characterizing range-wide population divergence in an alpine-endemic bird: A comparison of genetic and genomic approaches Characterizing range-wide population divergence in an alpine-endemic bird: A comparison of genetic and genomic approaches
The delineation of intraspecific units that are evolutionarily and demographically distinct is an important step in the development of species-specific management plans. Neutral genetic variation has served as the primary data source for delineating “evolutionarily significant units,” but with recent advances in genomic technology, we now have an unprecedented ability to utilize...
Authors
Kathryn Langin, Cameron L. Aldridge, Jennifer A. Fike, Robert S. Cornman, Kathy M Martin, Greg T Wann, Amy E. Seglund, Michael A Schroeder, David P Benson, Brad C. Fedy, Jessica R. Young, Scott D. Wilson, Don H Wolfe, Clait E. Braun, Sara J. Oyler-McCance
Genetic mark‐recapture analysis of winter faecal pellets allows estimation of population size in Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus Genetic mark‐recapture analysis of winter faecal pellets allows estimation of population size in Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus
The Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus is a species of conservation concern throughout its range in western North America. Since the 1950s, the high count of males at leks has been used as an index for monitoring populations. However, the relationship between this lek‐count index and population size is unclear, and its reliability for assessing population trends has been questioned...
Authors
Jessica E Shyvers, Brett L Walker, Sara J. Oyler-McCance, Jennifer A. Fike, Barry R. Noon
Non-USGS Publications**
Dharmarajan, G., J.C.Beasley, W.S. Beatty, Z.H.Olson, J. A. Fike and Olin E. Rhodes, Jr. 2016. Genetic co-structuring in host parasite systems: Empirical data from raccoons and raccoon ticks. Ecosphere 7(3):e01269
Dharmarajan, G., J.C.Beasley, J. A. Fike and Olin E. Rhodes, Jr. 2014. Effects of landscape, demographic and behavioral factors on kin structure: testing ecological predictions in a mesopredator with high dispersal capability. Animal Conservation. 17(3): 225-234. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12086/full
Fike, J.A., C.A. Hennessy, M.L. Kennedy, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2013. Eleven microsatellite markers for the eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and their utility in fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) and red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus). Conservation Genetics Resources. 5: 679-681.
Dharmarajan, G., J.C.Beasley, J. A. Fike, E. A. Raizman, C. C. Wu, R. M. Pogranichniy and Olin E. Rhodes, Jr. 2012. Effects of kin-structure on disease dynamics in raccoons (Procyon lotor) inhabiting a fragmented landscape. Basic and Applied Ecology. 13:560-567.
Atwood, T.C., J.K. Young, J.P. Beckmann, S.W. Breck, J. Fike, O.E. Rhodes Jr, and K.D. Bristow. 2011. Modeling connectivity of black bears in a desert sky island archipelago. Biological Conservation 144: 2851-2862.
Kimble, S.J, J.A. Fike, O.E. Rhodes, Jr., and R.N. Williams. 2011. Identification of 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci for the eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina). Conservation Genetics Resources 3:65-67.
Hapeman,P., E.K. Latch, J.A. Fike, O.E. Rhodes, and C.W. Kilpatrick. 2011. Landscape Genetics of Fishers (Martes pennanti) in the Northeast: Dispersal Barriers and Historical Influences. Journal of Heredity 102: 251-259.
Unger, S.D., J.A. Fike, T. Sutton, O.E. Rhodes, Jr., and R.N. Williams. 2010. Isolation and development of 12 polymorphic tetranucleotide microsatellite markers for the eastern hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) Conservation GeneticsResources 2:89-91.
Fike, J.A., T.L. DeVault, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Identification of twenty-four polymorphic microsatellite markers for the double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus). Molecular Ecology Resources 9:1183-1185.
Fike, J.A., J.C. Beasley, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Isolation of twenty-one polymorphic microsatellite markers for Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Molecular Ecology Resources 9:1200-1202.
Fike, J.A., G. Athrey, R. Bowman, P.L. Leberg, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Development of twenty-five polymorphic microsatellite markers for the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis). Conservation Genetics 10:1021-1023.
Fike, J.A. and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Characterization of twenty-six polymorphic microsatellite markers for the fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) and their utility in other squirrel species. Conservation Genetics 10:1545-1548.
Dharmarajan, G., J.A. Fike, J.C. Beasley and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Development and characterization of 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis). Molecular Ecology Resources 9:131-133.
Dharmarajan, G., J.A. Fike, J.C. Beasley and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Development and characterization of 14 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the raccoon tick (Ixodes texanus). Molecular Ecology Resources 9:296-298.
Latch, E.K., J.A. Heffelfinger, J.A. Fike, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Species-wide phylogeography of North American mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus): cryptic glacial refugia and postglacial recolonization. Molecular Ecology 18:1730-1745.
Dharmarajan, G., J.C. Beasley, J.A. Fike, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2009. Population genetic structure of raccoons (Procyon lotor) in a fragmented landscape. Canadian J. Zoology 87:814-824.
Drauch, A. M., B.E. Fisher, E.K. Latch, J. A. Fike and O. E. Rhodes, Jr. 2008. Evaluation of a remnant lake sturgeon population’s utility as a source for reintroductions in the Ohio River system. Conservation Genetics 9:1195-1209.
Latch, E.K, D.G. Scognamillo, J.A Fike, M.J. Chamberlain and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2008.Landscape genetics of coastal and inland river otters (Lontra canadensis) in Louisiana. Journal of Heredity 99:265-274.
Victory, E.R., J.C. Glaubitz, J.A. Fike, O.E. Rhodes, Jr. and K.E. Woeste. 2008. Different histories but similar genetic diversity and structure for black walnut in Indiana and Missouri. Pages 436-445, In Jacobs, D.F. and Michler C.H. (eds) Proceedings, 16th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2008 April 8-10: Lafayette, USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station Technical Report NRS-P-24.
Fike, J.A., G. Dharmarajan, A. M. Drauch and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2007. Development of polymorphic microsatellite loci for raccoons (Procyon lotor). Molecular Ecology Notes 7:525-527.
Anderson, S.J., J.A. Fike, G. Dharmarajan, and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2007. Characterization of 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci for eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus). Molecular Ecology Notes 7:513-515.
Beheler, A.S., J.A. Fike and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2007. Eight new polymorphic microsatellite loci from the eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe). Conservation Genetics 8:1259-1261.
Beheler, A. S., J. A. Fike, G. Dharmarajan, O. E. Rhodes, Jr., and T. L. Serfass. 2005. Ten new polymorphic microsatellite loci for North American river otters (Lontracanadensis) and their utility in related mustelids. Molecular Ecology Notes 5:602-604.
Beheler, A. S., J. A. Fike, L. M. Murfitt, O. E. Rhodes, Jr., and T. L. Serfass. 2004.Development of polymorphic microsatellite loci for North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) and amplification in related Mustelids. Molecular Ecology Notes 4:56-58.
Fike, J.A., T.L. Serfass, A.S. Beheler and O.E. Rhodes, Jr. 2004. Evaluation of preservation methods for DNA analyses of river otter scat: Probability of amplification and genotyping accuracy. Proceedings of the XI International Otter Colloquium Volume 21A.
**Disclaimer: The views expressed in Non-USGS publications are those of the author and do not represent the views of the USGS, Department of the Interior, or the U.S. Government.