Rare-earth elements (REE) are an essential component of numerous advanced technology applications including high efficiency batteries, emerging energy technologies, and key defense systems. The goal of this study was to assist in the evaluation of the distribution of rare earth element deposits in the southeastern U.S., with a focus on sediment-hosted resources.
Science Issue and Relevance
Rare-earth elements (REE) are an essential component of numerous advanced technology applications including high efficiency batteries, emerging energy technologies, and key defense systems. The goal of this study was to assist in the evaluation of the distribution of rare earth element deposits in the southeastern U.S., with a focus on sediment-hosted resources. Minerals housed in sedimentary environments are much easier to extract than those hosted in intrusions, and thus provide a potentially important U.S. resource. Various studies have indicated the presence of such resources in the southeastern U.S. in the form of placer, phosphoritic, and residual (soil/clay) environments, but many questions remain regarding the nature and amount of these resources and how they vary geographically over this large area (Overstreet, 1967; Pirkle et al., 1989; Grosz and Schruben, 1994; Long et al., 2010; Cross and Lassetter, 2011; Foley, 2012). Geophysical, geochemical, and mineralogical approaches were developed and applied using data available at the national scale complemented by targeted field studies at specific sites.
Methods to Address Issue
Geophysical data analyses provide a means of remotely sensing mineral concentrations of interest and mapping their probable spatial extent. When combined with geochemical and mineralogical ground-truth data, they form a powerful tool. We examined how and under what conditions geophysical and geochemical methods can be used for the detection and evaluation of rare earth element mineral deposits in sediment-hosted environments, with an emphasis on using data available at the national scale. The results of this study revealed key information regarding the distribution and composition of heavy mineral sand (placer) deposits in the southeastern U.S. Results were analyzed to determine how these deposits relate to the surrounding geology (especially sedimentary provenance) and have implications for the relative roles of erosion, alluvial processes, and coastal processes. Synthesis efforts contributed to our broader understanding of the processes associated with genesis and evolution of these deposit types.
Geophysical Data Analyses: Objectives were to develop geophysical approaches to rare earth element evaluation, including the analysis and synthesis of existing and new relevant data to evaluate links between geophysical and geochemical properties, rare earth element content and local geologic processes. Regional radiometric and magnetic data are publicly available over the southeastern U.S.; several studies have shown that these methods can highlight certain mineral concentrations in sedimentary environments (Force et al., 1982; Grosz, 1983; Peterson et al., 1986; Grosz et al., 1989; Grosz and Schruben, 1994; Shah et al., 2012; Shah and Harris, 2012).
Geochemical Data Analyses: Objectives were to conduct geochemical and mineralogical analyses of heavy mineral sand samples from both archives and field efforts. Analysis of new and existing data on the samples was performed to evaluate links between geophysical properties, rare earth element content and local geologic processes. Soil and stream sediment samples have also been collected over much of the region, with analyses performed as part of other USGS research efforts. In some areas rare earth element components have been measured, but in others only proxies were available, suggesting a benefit from further geochemical and mineralogical analysis.
Synthesis - Statistics, Modeling, Integration: Objectives were to synthesize geophysical, geochemical and geological data using statistics and/or other quantitative approaches, and to relate results to geological processes acting on a regional scale. The results provided insights into the formation and preservation of placer deposits that may or may not host rare earth elements.

References Cited
Cross, A. and Lassetter, W.L. 2011, Stratigraphic modeling for concealed phosphate deposits in Virginia’s Coastal Plain: U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Resources External Research Program Final Technical Report for Agreement G10AP00054.
Duval, J.S., Carson, J.M., Holman, P.B., and Darnley, A.G., 2005, Terrestrial radioactivity and gamma-ray exposure in the United States and Canada: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1413, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20051413.
Foley, N., 2012, Behavior of REE in high-alumina alteration zones formed by weathering of felsic volcanic rocks [abs]: The 22nd V.M. Goldschmidt Conference, Montreal, Canada: Mineralogical Magazine, 76(6) 1712. Available at https://goldschmidtabstracts.info//abstracts/abstractView?id=2012001192.
Force, E.R., Grosz, A.E., Loferski, P.J., and Maybin, A.H., 1982, Aeroradioactivity maps in heavy-mineral exploration—Charleston, South Carolina, area: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1218, 19 p., 2 plates, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1218.
Grosz, A.E., 1983, Application of total count aeroradiometric maps to the exploration for heavy-mineral deposits in the coastal plain of Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1263, scale 1:250,000, 20 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1218.
Grosz, A.E., Cathcart, J.B., Macke, D.L., Knapp, M.S., Schmidt, Walter, and Scott, T.M., 1989, Geologic interpretation of the gamma-ray aeroradiometric maps of central and northern Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1461, 48 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1461.
Grosz, A.E., and Schruben, P.G., 1994, NURE Geochemical and geophysical surveys - defining prospective terranes for United States placer exploration: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2097, 9 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/b2097.
Long, K.R., Van Gosen, B.S., Foley, N.K., and Cordier, Daniel, 2010, The principal rare earth elements deposits of the United States—A summary of domestic deposits and a global perspective: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010-5220, 96 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20105220.
Overstreet, W.C., 1967, The Geologic Occurrence of Monazite: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 530, 327 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp530.
Peterson, C.D., Komar, P.D., and Scheidegger, K.F., 1986, Distribution, geometry, and origin of heavy mineral placer deposits on Oregon beaches: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 56 (1), p. 67-77, doi:10.1306/212F8882-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
Pirkle, F.L., Pirkle, E.C., Pirkle, W.A., Dicks, S.E., Jones, D.S., and Mallard, E.A., 1989, Altama heavy mineral deposits in southeastern Georgia: Economic Geology, 84 (2), p. 425-433, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.84.2.425.
Shah, A.K., Vogt, P., Rosenbaum, J.G., Newell, W., Cronin, T.M., Willard, D.A., Hagen, R.A., Brozena, J., and Hofstra, A., 2012, Shipboard magnetic field "noise" reveals shallow heavy mineral sediment concentrations in Chesapeake Bay: Marine Geology, Volumes 303–306, 15 March 2012, p. 26-41, doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2012.02.006.
Shah, A.K., and Harris, M.S., 2012, Shipboard surveys track magnetic sources in marine sediments—Geophysical studies of the Stono and North Edisto Inlets near Charleston, South Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2012–1112, 1 poster, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20121112.
U.S. Geological Survey, 2004, The National Geochemical Survey: Database and Documentation: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2004-1001, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20041001.
Return to Mineral Resources Program | Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center
Below are other science projects associated with this project.
Critical Mineral Resources in Heavy Mineral Sands of the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain
Heavy-Mineral Sand Resources in the Southeastern U.S.
Below are publications associated with this project.
Rare earth mineral potential in the southeastern U.S. Coastal Plain from integrated geophysical, geochemical, and geological approaches
Coastal deposits of heavy mineral sands; Global significance and US resources
The distribution and composition of REE-bearing minerals in placers of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains, USA
Rare earth element (REE) resources are currently of great interest because of their importance as raw materials for high-technology manufacturing. The REE-phosphates monazite (light REE enriched) and xenotime (heavy REE enriched) resist weathering and can accumulate in placer deposits as part of the heavy mineral assemblage. The Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains of the southeastern United States ar
Placer deposits of the Atlantic coastal plain: Stratigraphy, sedimentology, mineral resources, mining, and reclamation Cove Point, Maryland, Williamsburg and Stony Creek, Virginia
Geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of REE in granite-derived regolith: a model for the Southeast United States
First steps of integrated spatial modeling of titanium, zirconium, and rare earth element resources within the Coastal Plain sediments of the southeastern United States
Deposit model for heavy-mineral sands in coastal environments
Below are news stories associated with this project.
- Overview
Rare-earth elements (REE) are an essential component of numerous advanced technology applications including high efficiency batteries, emerging energy technologies, and key defense systems. The goal of this study was to assist in the evaluation of the distribution of rare earth element deposits in the southeastern U.S., with a focus on sediment-hosted resources.
Layered deposit of unconsolidated heavy mineral sands along the shores of Folly Beach, South Carolina. Science Issue and Relevance
Rare-earth elements (REE) are an essential component of numerous advanced technology applications including high efficiency batteries, emerging energy technologies, and key defense systems. The goal of this study was to assist in the evaluation of the distribution of rare earth element deposits in the southeastern U.S., with a focus on sediment-hosted resources. Minerals housed in sedimentary environments are much easier to extract than those hosted in intrusions, and thus provide a potentially important U.S. resource. Various studies have indicated the presence of such resources in the southeastern U.S. in the form of placer, phosphoritic, and residual (soil/clay) environments, but many questions remain regarding the nature and amount of these resources and how they vary geographically over this large area (Overstreet, 1967; Pirkle et al., 1989; Grosz and Schruben, 1994; Long et al., 2010; Cross and Lassetter, 2011; Foley, 2012). Geophysical, geochemical, and mineralogical approaches were developed and applied using data available at the national scale complemented by targeted field studies at specific sites.
Methods to Address Issue
Geophysical data analyses provide a means of remotely sensing mineral concentrations of interest and mapping their probable spatial extent. When combined with geochemical and mineralogical ground-truth data, they form a powerful tool. We examined how and under what conditions geophysical and geochemical methods can be used for the detection and evaluation of rare earth element mineral deposits in sediment-hosted environments, with an emphasis on using data available at the national scale. The results of this study revealed key information regarding the distribution and composition of heavy mineral sand (placer) deposits in the southeastern U.S. Results were analyzed to determine how these deposits relate to the surrounding geology (especially sedimentary provenance) and have implications for the relative roles of erosion, alluvial processes, and coastal processes. Synthesis efforts contributed to our broader understanding of the processes associated with genesis and evolution of these deposit types.
Geophysical Data Analyses: Objectives were to develop geophysical approaches to rare earth element evaluation, including the analysis and synthesis of existing and new relevant data to evaluate links between geophysical and geochemical properties, rare earth element content and local geologic processes. Regional radiometric and magnetic data are publicly available over the southeastern U.S.; several studies have shown that these methods can highlight certain mineral concentrations in sedimentary environments (Force et al., 1982; Grosz, 1983; Peterson et al., 1986; Grosz et al., 1989; Grosz and Schruben, 1994; Shah et al., 2012; Shah and Harris, 2012).
Geochemical Data Analyses: Objectives were to conduct geochemical and mineralogical analyses of heavy mineral sand samples from both archives and field efforts. Analysis of new and existing data on the samples was performed to evaluate links between geophysical properties, rare earth element content and local geologic processes. Soil and stream sediment samples have also been collected over much of the region, with analyses performed as part of other USGS research efforts. In some areas rare earth element components have been measured, but in others only proxies were available, suggesting a benefit from further geochemical and mineralogical analysis.
Synthesis - Statistics, Modeling, Integration: Objectives were to synthesize geophysical, geochemical and geological data using statistics and/or other quantitative approaches, and to relate results to geological processes acting on a regional scale. The results provided insights into the formation and preservation of placer deposits that may or may not host rare earth elements.
Sources/Usage: Some content may have restrictions. Visit Media to see details.Maps showing monazite (left) and xenotime (right) content in coastal plain NURE and NGS estimated using the La concentration in monazite and the Yb concentration in xenotime, after correcting for monazite- and zircon-hosted Yb. For reference, mapped exposures of Cretaceous, Paleogene and Quaternary sediments are identified, but limestone and calcareous units are omitted. The monazite belts identified by Mertie (1953) are shown as dark polygons interior to the coastal plains. Note that no samples exist in southwestern Tennessee in the NURE database and NGS samples for that region lack INAA data. Modified from Figure 8, Bern and others, 2016, doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2015.12.011. References Cited
Cross, A. and Lassetter, W.L. 2011, Stratigraphic modeling for concealed phosphate deposits in Virginia’s Coastal Plain: U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Resources External Research Program Final Technical Report for Agreement G10AP00054.
Duval, J.S., Carson, J.M., Holman, P.B., and Darnley, A.G., 2005, Terrestrial radioactivity and gamma-ray exposure in the United States and Canada: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1413, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20051413.
Foley, N., 2012, Behavior of REE in high-alumina alteration zones formed by weathering of felsic volcanic rocks [abs]: The 22nd V.M. Goldschmidt Conference, Montreal, Canada: Mineralogical Magazine, 76(6) 1712. Available at https://goldschmidtabstracts.info//abstracts/abstractView?id=2012001192.
Force, E.R., Grosz, A.E., Loferski, P.J., and Maybin, A.H., 1982, Aeroradioactivity maps in heavy-mineral exploration—Charleston, South Carolina, area: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1218, 19 p., 2 plates, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1218.
Grosz, A.E., 1983, Application of total count aeroradiometric maps to the exploration for heavy-mineral deposits in the coastal plain of Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1263, scale 1:250,000, 20 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1218.
Grosz, A.E., Cathcart, J.B., Macke, D.L., Knapp, M.S., Schmidt, Walter, and Scott, T.M., 1989, Geologic interpretation of the gamma-ray aeroradiometric maps of central and northern Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1461, 48 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1461.
Grosz, A.E., and Schruben, P.G., 1994, NURE Geochemical and geophysical surveys - defining prospective terranes for United States placer exploration: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2097, 9 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/b2097.
Long, K.R., Van Gosen, B.S., Foley, N.K., and Cordier, Daniel, 2010, The principal rare earth elements deposits of the United States—A summary of domestic deposits and a global perspective: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010-5220, 96 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20105220.
Overstreet, W.C., 1967, The Geologic Occurrence of Monazite: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 530, 327 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp530.
Peterson, C.D., Komar, P.D., and Scheidegger, K.F., 1986, Distribution, geometry, and origin of heavy mineral placer deposits on Oregon beaches: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 56 (1), p. 67-77, doi:10.1306/212F8882-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
Pirkle, F.L., Pirkle, E.C., Pirkle, W.A., Dicks, S.E., Jones, D.S., and Mallard, E.A., 1989, Altama heavy mineral deposits in southeastern Georgia: Economic Geology, 84 (2), p. 425-433, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.84.2.425.
Shah, A.K., Vogt, P., Rosenbaum, J.G., Newell, W., Cronin, T.M., Willard, D.A., Hagen, R.A., Brozena, J., and Hofstra, A., 2012, Shipboard magnetic field "noise" reveals shallow heavy mineral sediment concentrations in Chesapeake Bay: Marine Geology, Volumes 303–306, 15 March 2012, p. 26-41, doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2012.02.006.
Shah, A.K., and Harris, M.S., 2012, Shipboard surveys track magnetic sources in marine sediments—Geophysical studies of the Stono and North Edisto Inlets near Charleston, South Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2012–1112, 1 poster, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20121112.
U.S. Geological Survey, 2004, The National Geochemical Survey: Database and Documentation: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2004-1001, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20041001.
Return to Mineral Resources Program | Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center
- Science
Below are other science projects associated with this project.
Critical Mineral Resources in Heavy Mineral Sands of the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain
In many parts of the southeastern U.S., dark-colored sands can be seen at beaches or beneath soil. These sands contain titanium, zirconium, and rare earth elements, which are considered critical mineral resources. Such sands are present in areas from the coast to a hundred miles or more inland beneath soil within the Atlantic Coastal Plain Province. In some locales they are concentrated enough to...Heavy-Mineral Sand Resources in the Southeastern U.S.
We are assessing the extent of industrial mineral resources hosted by heavy-mineral sands in the coastal plain of the southeastern United States. “Heavy-mineral sands" (HMS) is a term commonly used in industry and geologic literature to describe layered sediments deposited in coastal environments that contain dense (“heavy") minerals of economic value. The heavy minerals extracted from these... - Publications
Below are publications associated with this project.
Rare earth mineral potential in the southeastern U.S. Coastal Plain from integrated geophysical, geochemical, and geological approaches
We combined geophysical, geochemical, mineralogical, and geological data to evaluate the regional presence of rare earth element (REE)−bearing minerals in heavy mineral sand deposits of the southeastern U.S. Coastal Plain. We also analyzed regional differences in these data to determine probable sedimentary provenance. Analyses of heavy mineral separates covering the region show strong correlationAuthorsAnjana K. Shah, Carleton R. Bern, Bradley S. Van Gosen, David L. Daniels, William Benzel, James R. Budahn, Karl J. Ellefsen, Adam T. Karst, Richard DavisCoastal deposits of heavy mineral sands; Global significance and US resources
Ancient and modern coastal deposits of heavy mineral sands (HMS) are the principal source of several heavy industrial minerals, with mining and processing operations on every continent except Antarctica. For example, HMS deposits are the main source of titanium feedstock for the titanium dioxide (TiO2) pigments industry, obtained from the minerals ilmenite (Fe2+TiO3), rutile (TiO2) and leucoxene (AuthorsBradley S. Van Gosen, Donald I. Bleiwas, George M. Bedinger, Karl J. Ellefsen, Anjana K. ShahThe distribution and composition of REE-bearing minerals in placers of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains, USA
Rare earth element (REE) resources are currently of great interest because of their importance as raw materials for high-technology manufacturing. The REE-phosphates monazite (light REE enriched) and xenotime (heavy REE enriched) resist weathering and can accumulate in placer deposits as part of the heavy mineral assemblage. The Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains of the southeastern United States ar
AuthorsCarleton R. Bern, Anjana K. Shah, William Benzel, Heather A. LowersPlacer deposits of the Atlantic coastal plain: Stratigraphy, sedimentology, mineral resources, mining, and reclamation Cove Point, Maryland, Williamsburg and Stony Creek, Virginia
No abstract available.AuthorsC. Rick Berquist, Anjana K. Shah, Adam T. KarstGeochemical and mineralogical characteristics of REE in granite-derived regolith: a model for the Southeast United States
Rare earth element (REE) ion-adsorption clay deposits are of global economic importance because they currently supply a significant portion of the world’s annual production of both light (LREE) and heavy REE (HREE). There is considerable ambiguity regarding the origin of this deposit type: The main criteria include the presence of large, generally granitic, igneous suites; long periods of intenseAuthorsNora K. Foley, Carleton R. Bern, Robert A. Ayuso, Bernard E. Hubbard, Anjana K. ShahFirst steps of integrated spatial modeling of titanium, zirconium, and rare earth element resources within the Coastal Plain sediments of the southeastern United States
The Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States has extensive, unconsolidated sedimentary deposits that are enriched in heavy minerals containing titanium, zirconium, and rare earth element resources. Areas favorable for exploration and development of these resources are being identified by geochemical data, which are supplemented with geological, geophysical, hydrological, and geographical daAuthorsKarl J. Ellefsen, Bradley S. Van Gosen, David L. Fey, James R. Budahn, Steven M. Smith, Anjana K. ShahDeposit model for heavy-mineral sands in coastal environments
This report provides a descriptive model of heavy-mineral sands, which are sedimentary deposits of dense minerals that accumulate with sand, silt, and clay in coastal environments, locally forming economic concentrations of the heavy minerals. This deposit type is the main source of titanium feedstock for the titanium dioxide (TiO2) pigments industry, through recovery of the minerals ilmenite (Fe2AuthorsBradley S. Van Gosen, David L. Fey, Anjana K. Shah, Philip L. Verplanck, Todd M. Hoefen - News
Below are news stories associated with this project.