Todd E Katzner

Biography

Education

Ph.D. 2003, Arizona State University
M.S. 1994, University of Wyoming
B.A. 1991, Oberlin College

Specialty

Ecology, Animal Movement, Conservation Biology, Ornithology, Mammalogy, Population Biology, Animal Biotelemetry

Research Interests

My research interests focus on wildlife conservation ecology and the interaction between wildlife and the role of wildlife in natural systems. Much of my work is built around utilization of novel technologies and approaches to wildlife ecology. I was part of a team that developed the first non-invasive monitoring scheme for any avian species, I was involved in development of novel high-frequency GPS-GSM telemetry systems for tracking migratory birds, and I developed a network of camera traps to monitor abundance and distribution of terrestrial avian scavengers across eastern North America. Much of my recent funding is focused on evaluating the potential impacts of renewable energy development on conservation-dependent birds.

Science and Products

Filter Total Items: 3

Location

Date published: November 13, 2017

Status: Active

Interaction between Energy Development and Raptors

Energy production has become essential for modern society. At the same time, this process can have negative effects on wildlife and ecosystems. It is in the best interest of society and the environment to understand these effects and to manage and mitigate for them. Our team focuses on measuring how energy development influences birds of prey and learning how to minimize negative influences....

Contacts: Todd E Katzner

Attribution: Ecosystems, Energy & Wildlife, Wildlife Program, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center (FRESC)

Date published: November 6, 2017

Status: Active

Conservation Ecology and Monitoring of Raptors

Raptors, or birds of prey, are often used to indicate the state of an ecosystem, and monitoring their populations can help us to understand ecosystem processes. Raptors are particularly good animals for monitoring because they are big and therefore charismatic and easy to observe. Whether we’re monitoring nesting biology and reproductive output, counting individuals on roads, or setting up...

Contacts: Todd E Katzner

Attribution: Ecosystems, Energy & Wildlife, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center (FRESC)

Date published: November 6, 2017

Status: Active

Bird Movement and Migration

Migration is an amazing annual event. Every year billions of animals – birds, mammals, insects, and fish – make long-distance journeys from breeding grounds to wintering grounds. Most northern hemisphere birds migrate southward, but there are many other ways that birds move seasonally. If we want to protect birds that take these long distance journeys, we need to understand why they move, why...

Contacts: Todd E Katzner

Attribution: Ecosystems, Energy & Wildlife, Wildlife Program, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center (FRESC)

Pre-USGS Publications

A Most Dangerous Game- Death and Injury to Birds from Porcupine Quills

Katzner, T.E., Miller, T.A., Rodrigue, J.L., Shaffer, S., 2015, A Most Dangerous Game- Death and Injury to Birds from Porcupine Quills: Wilson Journal of Ornithology, v. 127, no. 1, p. 102-108, https://doi.org/10.1676/14-066.1.

Chronic lead exposure is epidemic in obligate scavenger populations in eastern North America

Behmke, S., Fallon, J.A., Duerr, A., Lehner, A., Buchweitz, J., Katzner, T.E., 2015, Chronic lead exposure is epidemic in obligate scavenger populations in eastern North America: Environment International, v. 79, p. 51-55, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.03.010.

Flight response of slope-soaring birds to seasonal variation in thermal generation

Duerr, A.E., Miller, T.A., Lanzone, M.J., Brandes, D., Cooper, J., O'Malley, K., Maisonnueve, C., Tremblay, J., Katzner, T.E., 2015, Flight response of slope-soaring birds to seasonal variation in thermal generation: Functional Ecology, v. 29, no. 6, p. 779-790, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12381.

Integrating citizen-science data with movement models to estimate the size of a migratory golden eagle population

Dennhardt, A.J., Duerr, A.E., Brandes, D., Katzner, T.E., 2015, Integrating citizen-science data with movement models to estimate the size of a migratory golden eagle population: Biological Conservation, v. 184, p. 68-78, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.01.003.

Known Breeding Distribution and Abundance of Golden Eagles in Eastern North America

Morneau, F., Tremblay, J., Todd, C., Chubbs, T.E., Maisonnueve, C., Lemaıˆtre, J., Katzner, T.E., 2015, Known Breeding Distribution and Abundance of Golden Eagles in Eastern North America: Northeastern Naturalist, v. 22, no. 2, p. 236-247, https://doi.org/10.1656/045.022.0201.

Limitations and mechanisms influencing the migratory performance of soaring birds

Miller, T.A., Brooks, R.P., Lanzone, M.J., Brandes, D., Cooper, J., Tremblay, J., Wilhelm, J., Duerr, A.E., Katzner, T.E., 2015, Limitations and mechanisms influencing the migratory performance of soaring birds: Ibis, v. 158, no. 1, p. 116-134, https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12331.

Modeling autumn migration of a rare soaring raptor identifies new movement corridors in central Appalachia

Dennhardt, A.J., Duerr, A.E., Brandes, D., Katzner, T.E., 2015, Modeling autumn migration of a rare soaring raptor identifies new movement corridors in central Appalachia: Ecological Modelling, v. 303, p. 19-29, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.02.010.

Use of multiple modes of flight subsidy by a soaring terrestrial bird, the golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos, when on migration

Katzner, T.E., Turk, P., Duerr, A.E., Miller, T.A., Lanzone, M.J., Cooper, J., Brandes, D., Tremblay, J., Lemaıˆtre, J., 2015, Use of multiple modes of flight subsidy by a soaring terrestrial bird, the golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos, when on migration: Journal of the Royal Society Interface, v. 12, no. 112, p. 20150530, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2015.0530.

Addressing gender imbalances in Animal Conservation

Pettorelli, N., Evans, D.M., Garner, T.W., Katzner, T.E., Gompper, M.E., Altwegg, R., Branch, T.A., Johnson, J.A., Pollock, K., DaVolls, L., Rantanen, E., Gordon, I.J., 2013, Addressing gender imbalances in Animal Conservation: Animal Conservation, v. 16, p. 131-133, https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12032.

Are insular populations of the Philippine falconet (Microhierax erythrogenys) steps in a cline?

Katzner, T.E., Collar, N.J., 2013, Are insular populations of the Philippine falconet (Microhierax erythrogenys) steps in a cline?: The Condor, v. 115, no. 3, p. 576-583, https://doi.org/10.1525/cond.2013.120070.

Influence of human population size and the built environment on avian assemblages in urban green spaces. Urban Ecosystems

Latta, S.C., Musher, L.J., Latta, K.N., Katzner, T.E., 2013, Influence of human population size and the built environment on avian assemblages in urban green spaces: Urban Ecosystems, v. 16, no. 3, p. 463-479, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0282-z.

The Status of Populations of Vultures in Kazakhstan

Sklyarenko, S.L., Katzner, T.E., 2012, The Status of Populations of Vultures in Kazakhstan In Kovshar, A.F., Rustamov, E.A., Mitropolsky, O.V., Levin, A.S., Kovshar, V.A., eds., Ornithological News of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia: ISBN 978-601-7287-05-4, Almaty, Kazakhstan, Menzbier’s Ornithological Society, p. 178-185.

Dispersal, Band Encounters, and Causes of Death in a Reintroduced and Rapidly Growing Population of Peregrine Falcons

Katzner, T.E., Winton, J.D., McMorris, F.A., Brauning, D., 2012, Dispersal, Band Encounters, and Causes of Death in a Reintroduced and Rapidly Growing Population of Peregrine Falcons: Journal of Raptor Research, v. 46, no. 1, p. 75-83, https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-10-93.1.

Distribution, diet and winter ecology of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca

Al Hasani, I.K., Azar, J.F., Nishimura, K., Amr, Z.S., Katzner, T.E., 2012, Distribution, diet and winter ecology of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in Jordan.: Vertebrate Zoology, v. 62, no. 2, p. 273-280.

Estimating updraft velocity components over large spatial scales - Contrasting migration strategies of golden eagles and turkey vultures

Borher, G., Brandes, D., Mandel, J., Bildstein, K.L., Miller, T., Lanzone, M., Katzner, T.E., Maissoneuve, C., Tremblay, J., 2012, Estimating updraft velocity components over large spatial scales- Contrasting migration strategies of golden eagles and turkey vultures: Ecology Letters, v. 15, no. 2, p. 96-103, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01713.x.

Fisheries conservation and management - finding consensus in the midst of competing paradigms

Branch, T.A., Austin, J.D., Pollock, K., Gordon, I.J., Gompper, M.E., Katzner, T.E., Pettorelli, N., 2012, Fisheries conservation and management- finding consensus in the midst of competing paradigms: Animal Conservation, v. 15, no. 1, p. 1-3, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2011.00502.x.

Flight responses by a migratory soaring raptor to changing meteorological conditions

Lanzone, M., Miller, T., Turk, P., Brandes, D., Halverson, C., Maissoneuve, C., Tremblay, J., Cooper, J., O'Malley, K., Brooks, R., Katzner, T.E., 2012, Flight responses by a migratory soaring raptor to changing meteorological conditions: Biology Letters, v. 8, no. 5, p. 710-713, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0359.

Funding nature conservation - who pays?

Evans, D.M., Barnard, P., Koh, L.P., Chapman, C.A., Altwegg, R., Garner, T.W., Gompper, M.E., Gordon, I.J., Katzner, T.E., Pettorelli, N., 2012, Funding nature conservation- who pays?: Animal Conservation, v. 15, no. 3, p. 215-216, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2012.00550.x.

Second nest record of Smew Mergus albellus in the Naurzum forest

Bragin, E., Katzner, T.E., 2012, Second nest record of Smew Mergus albellus in the Naurzum forest: Russian Ornithological Society: Express Issue, v. 21, no. 743, p. 724-725.

Status, biology and conservation priorities for North America’s eastern Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) population

Katzner, T.E., Smith, B.W., Miller, T.A., Brandes, D., Cooper, J., Lanzone, M., Brauning, D., Farmer, C., Harding, S., Kramer, D., Koppie, C., Maissoneuve, C., Martell, M., Mojica, E.K., Todd, C., Tremblay, J., Wheeler, M., Brinker, D.F., Chubbs, T.E., O'Malley, K., Mehus, S., Porter, B., Brooks, R.P., Watts, B.D., Bildstein, K.L., 2012, Status, biology and conservation priorities for North America’s eastern Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) population: Auk, v. 29, no. 1, p. 168-176, https://doi.org/10.1525/auk.2011.11078.

Summer accumulation of large birds of prey, and the problem of estimating their number

Bragin, E., Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E., 2012, Summer accumulation of large birds of prey , and the problem of estimating their number - Proceedings Menzbirovskogo Ornithological Society: Volume I: Proceedings of XIII International Ornithological Conference of Northern Eurasia, p. 234-240.

Testing an emerging paradigm in migration ecology shows surprising differences in efficiency between flight modes

Duerr, A., Miller, T., Lanzone, M., Brandes, D., Cooper, J., O'Malley, K., Maissoneuve, C., Tremblay, J., Katzner, T.E., 2012, Testing an emerging paradigm in migration ecology shows surprising differences in efficiency between flight modes: PLOS ONE, v. 7, no. 4, p. e35548, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035548.

To pluck or not to pluck- scientific methodologies should be carefully chosen, not “one size fits all"

Katzner, T.E., Wheeler, M., Negro, J.J., Kapetanakos, Y., DeWoody, J.A., Horvath, M., Lovette, I., 2012, To pluck or not to pluck- scientific methodologies should be carefully chosen, not “one size fits all": Journal of Avian Biology, v. 43, p. 15-17, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-048X.2011.05592.x.

Topography drives migratory flight altitude of golden eagles - implications for on-shore wind energy development

Katzner, T.E., Brandes, D., Miller, T., Lanzone, M., Maissoneuve, C., Tremblay, J., Mulvihill, R., Merovich, G., 2012, Topography drives migratory flight altitude of golden eagles- implications for on-shore wind energy development: Journal of Applied Ecology, v. 49, no. 5, p. 1178-1186, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02185.x.

What the ‘food security’ agenda means for animal conservation in terrestrial ecosystems

Gordon, I.J., Pollock, K., Altwegg, R., Garner, T.W., Gompper, M.E., Katzner, T.E., Pettorelli, N., Redpath, S., 2012, What the ‘food security’ agenda means for animal conservation in terrestrial ecosystems: Animal Conservation, v. 15, no. 2, p. 115-116, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2012.00541.x.

Conservation implications of inaccurate estimation of cryptic population size

Katzner, T.E., Ivy, J.R., Bragin, E., Milner-Gulland, E.J., DeWoody, J.A., 2011, Conservation implications of inaccurate estimation of cryptic population size: Animal Conservation, v. 14, no. 4, p. 328-332, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2011.00444.x.

Migratory movements of waterfowl in Central Asia and avian influenza emergence - sporadic transmission of H5N1 from east to west

Iverson, S.A., Gavrilov, A., Katzner, T.E., Takekawa, J., Newman, S., Miller, T., Hagemeijer, W., Sivananinthaperumal, B., Mundkur, T., DeMattos, C., Ahmed, L.S., 2011, Migratory movements of waterfowl in Central Asia and avian influenza emergence- sporadic transmission of H5N1 from east to west: Ibis, v. 153, no. 2, p. 279-292, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01095.x.

The Why, What, and How of Global Biodiversity Indicators Beyond the 2010 Target

Jones, J.P., Collen, B., Baxter, P.W., Bubb, P., Illian, J., Katzner, T.E., Keane, A., Loh, J., McDonald-Madden, E., Nicholson, E., Pereira, H., Possingham, H., Pullin, A., Rodrigues, A., Ruiz-Gutierrez, V., Sommerville, M., Milner-Gulland, E.J., 2011, The Why, What, and How of Global Biodiversity Indicators Beyond the 2010 Target: Conservation Biology, v. 25, no. 3, p. 450-457, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01605.x.

Breeding biology of the Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus) in north-central Kazakhstan

Terraube, J., Arroyo, B.E., Mougeot, F., Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E., 2010, Breeding biology of the Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus) in north-central Kazakhstan: Journal of Ornithology, v. 151, no. 3, p. 713-722, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-010-0505-0.

Genetic Analyses of Noninvasively Collected Feathers Can Provide Insights into Avian Demography and Behavior

Rudnick, J.A., Katzner, T.E., DeWoody, J.A., 2009, Genetic Analyses of Noninvasively Collected Feathers Can Provide Insights into Avian Demography and Behavior In Aronoff, J.B., ed., Handbook of Nature Conservation: Hauppauge, NY, Nova Science Publishers, p. 181-197.

Golden eagle migration and winter behavior in Pennsylvania

Miller, T.M., Brandes, D., Lanzone, M., Ombalski, D., Maisonnueve, C., Katzner, T.E., 2009, Golden eagle migration and winter behavior in Pennsylvania In Majumdar, S.K., ed., Avian Ecology and Conservation: A Pennsylvania Focus with National Implications: Immaculata, PA, Pennsylvania Academy of Sciences, p. 111-125.

Wind Power Mortality

Brandes, D., Miller, T.M., Katzner, T.E., 2009, Wind Power Mortality In Majumdar, S.K., ed., Avian Ecology and Conservation: A Pennsylvania Focus with National Implications: Immaculata, PA, Pennsylvania Academy of Sciences, p. 300-303.

A non-invasive genetic evaluation of population size, natal philopatry, and roosting behavior of non-breeding eastern imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca) in central Asia

Rudnick, J.A., Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., DeWoody, J.A., 2008, A non-invasive genetic evaluation of population size, natal philopatry, and roosting behavior of non-breeding eastern imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca) in central Asia: Conservation Genetics, v. 9, p. 667-676.

Population structure, diversity, and phylogeography in the near-threatened Eurasian black vultures Aegypius monachus (Falconiformes; Accipitridae) in Europe - insights from microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variation

Poulakakis, N., Antoniou, A., Mantziou, G., Parmakelis, A., Skartsi, T., Vasilakis, D., Elorriaga, J., De La Puente, J., Gavashelishvili, A., Ghasabyan, M., Katzner, T.E., McGrady, M.J., Batbayar, N., Fuller, M.R., Natsagdorj, T., 2008, Population structure, diversity, and phylogeography in the near-threatened Eurasian black vultures Aegypius monachus (Falconiformes; Accipitridae) in Europe- insights from microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variation: Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 95, p. 859-872.

Rapid sustainability modelling for raptors by radio tagging and DNA fingerprinting

Kenward, R., Katzner, T.E., Wink, M., Marcström, V., Walls, S., Karlbom, M., Pfeffer, R., Bragin, E.A., Hodder, K., Levin, A.S., 2007, Rapid sustainability modelling for raptors by radio tagging and DNA fingerprinting: Journal of Wildlife Management, v. 71, no. 1, p. 238-245.

Severe declines of Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca populations in the Baikal region, Russia- a modern and historical perspective

Ryabtsev, V.V., Katzner, T.E., 2007, Severe declines of Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca populations in the Baikal region, Russia- a modern and historical perspective: Bird Conservation International, v. 17, no. 03, p. 197-209.

Species identification of birds through genetic analysis of naturally shed feathers

Rudnick, J.A., Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., DeWoody, J.A., 2007, Species identification of birds through genetic analysis of naturally shed feathers: Molecular Ecology Notes, p. 757-762.

Using modeling to improve monitoring of structured populations- are we collecting the right data?

Katzner, T.E., Milner-Gulland, E.J., Bragin, E.A., 2007, Using modeling to improve monitoring of structured populations- are we collecting the right data?: Conservation Biology, v. 21, no. 1, p. 241-252.

Modelling populations of long lived birds of prey for conservation- a study of Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca) in Kazakhstan

Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Milner-Gulland, E.J., 2006, Modelling populations of long lived birds of prey for conservation- a study of Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca) in Kazakhstan: Biological Conservation, v. 132, no. 3, p. 322-335.

Corruption - a double-edged sword for conservation? A response to Smith and Walpole

Katzner, T.E., 2005, Corruption - a double-edged sword for conservation? A response to Smith and Walpole.: Oryx, v. 39, no. 3, p. 260-262.

Results from a long-term nest-box program for American Kestrels - implications for improved population monitoring and conservation

Katzner, T.E., Robertson, S., Robertson, B., Klucsarits, J., McCarty, K.M., Bildstein, K.L., 2005, Results from a long-term nest-box program for American Kestrels- implications for improved population monitoring and conservation: Journal of Field Ornithology, v. 76, no. 3, p. 217-318.

Tetranucleotide microsatellites for aquila and haliaeetus eagles

Busch, J., Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Keim, P., 2005, Tetranucleotide microsatellites for aquila and haliaeetus eagles: Molecular Ecology Notes, v. 5, no. 1, p. 39-41.

Using naturally shed feathers for individual identification, genetic parentage analyses, and population monitoring in an endangered Eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) population from Kazakhstan

Rudnick, J.A., Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Rhodes, O.E., DeWoody, J.A., 2005, Using naturally shed feathers for individual identification, genetic parentage analyses, and population monitoring in an endangered Eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) population from Kazakhstan: Molecular Ecology, v. 14, no. 10, p. 2959-2967.

Adjacent nesting by Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus and Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis on the Tibetan Plateau, China

Katzner, T.E., Hsun Lai, C., Gardiner, J.D., Foggin, J.M., Pearson, D., Smith, A.T., 2004, Adjacent nesting by Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus and Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis on the Tibetan Plateau, China: Forktail, v. 20, p. 94-96.

Survey for Hemoparasites in Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca), Steppe Eagles (Aquila nipalensis), and White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) from Kazakhstan

Leppert, L.L., Layman, S., Bragin, E.A., Katzner, T.E., 2004, Survey for Hemoparasites in Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca), Steppe Eagles (Aquila nipalensis), and White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) from Kazakhstan: Journal of Wildlife Diseases, v. 40, no. 2, p. 316-319.

A new species of Copidosoma Ratzeburg (Hymenoptera- Encyrtidae) from eagle nests in Kazakhstan

Sharik, T.L., Katzner, T.E., Bragina, T.M., 2003, A new species of Copidosoma Ratzeburg (Hymenoptera- Encyrtidae) from eagle nests in Kazakhstan: Journal of Hymenoptera Research, v. 12, no. 2, p. 308-311.

Causes and impacts of temporospatial declines of Gypsvultures in Asia

Pain, D.J., Cunningham, P.G., Donald, P.F., Duckworth, J.W., Houston, D.C., Katzner, T.E., Parry-Jones, J., Poole, C., Prakash, V., Round, P., Timmins, R., 2003, Causes and impacts of temporospatial declines of Gypsvultures in Asia: Conservation Biology, v. 17, no. 3, p. 661-671.

Long distance movements from established burrow sites by pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) in southwestern Wyoming

Katzner, T.E., Parker, K.L., 1998, Long distance movements from established burrow sites by pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) in southwestern Wyoming: Northwest Naturalist, v. 79, no. 2, p. 72-74.

Survival of the Polyembryonic Parasitoid Copidosomopsis tanytmema (Hymenoptera- Encyrtidae) in Envenomized Larvae of its Host Anagasta kuehniella (Lepidoptera- Pyralidae)

Katzner, T.E., Cruz, Y.P., 1998, Survival of the Polyembryonic Parasitoid Copidosomopsis tanytmema (Hymenoptera- Encyrtidae) in Envenomized Larvae of its Host Anagasta kuehniella (Lepidoptera- Pyralidae): Annals of the Entomological Society of America, v. 91, no. 6, p. 808-812.

Metabolism and Thermal Response in Winter-Acclimatized Pygmy Rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis)

Katzner, T.E., Parker, K.L., Hardegree, S.P., 1997, Metabolism and Thermal Response in Winter-Acclimatized Pygmy Rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis): Journal of Mammalogy, v. 78, no. 4, p. 1053-1062.

Vegetative Characteristics and Size of Home Ranges Used by Pygmy Rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) during Winter

Katzner, T.E., Parker, K.L., 1997, Vegetative Characteristics and Size of Home Ranges Used by Pygmy Rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) during Winter: Journal of Mammalogy, v. 78, no. 4, p. 1063-1072.

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August 23, 2016

Golden Eagle Flight

Golden eagles can be killed by colliding with a number of human-made objects, including wind turbines. USGS research wildlife biologist Todd Katzner describes his studies of golden eagle flight. This research is being done to model flight behavior which might help managers understand how placement of wind turbines might pose significant risks to golden eagles.

Attribution: Ecosystems, Energy & Wildlife, Wildlife Program, Rocky Mountain, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center (FRESC)

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Date published: November 5, 2019

Sources of Lead in Red-Shouldered Hawks

One of the most common pathways of lead exposure in birds is ingestion of contaminated food sources.