At its peak production, Iron Mountain ranked as the tenth largest copper production site in the world, sixth in the U.S. and first in California. During its operation, from 1879 - 1963, ten different mines throughout the site's 4,400 acres were the source of not just copper, but also silver, iron, gold, zinc and pyrite (iron sulfide).
A century of active mining at Iron Mountain took an environmental toll. The first documented consequence of mining was fish kills in the Sacramento River in 1899, followed by severe air pollution from the open-air heap roasting and smelters that stripped the land of vegetation near the town of Keswick along lower Spring Creek. As mining operations increased, so did pollution. Acid mine water seeping into the Sacramento River, sizable fish kills, and sediment deposits in the Spring Creek Arm of Keswick Reservoir have all plagued the area. To compound the issue, the city of Redding receives its drinking water from the Sacramento River, downstream from the Iron Mountain site. An uncontrolled release of Iron Mountain acid mine drainage could potentially threaten the quality of the drinking-water supply.
Remediation
In 1983, the site was one of the first listed on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Priority List as part of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or "Superfund"). Its ranking was the third most hazardous site in the State of California. Several successive studies recommended remedial measures to clean up contamination sources at the Iron Mountain site. Starting in 1986, the EPA authorized four Records of Decision (RODs) that enforced specific clean up tasks, such as partial capping, surface-water diversions, tailings removal, and lime neutralization treatment of the most acidic, metal-rich flows, which have reduced copper and zinc loads by 95%.
For further information, see:
Timeline of Mining and Remediation History
Pipe Scale Study
As acidic water at Iron Mountain is transported away from inactive mining sites to a treatment plant, microbial oxidation causes iron in the acid mine drainage to accumulate on the inside of the pipeline, resulting in pipe scale. The encrusted pipes interfere with treatment efforts and cause costly management problems when pipe-scale buildup clogs pipelines and other treatment structures. USGS scientists are working with the EPA to research strategies to prevent or retard scale formation in the pipeline.
Pipe Scale Studies At Iron Mountain Mines >>
Significance of Sulfates
Sulfide oxidation at Iron Mountain has led to extremely acid mine drainage and the active formation of a wide variety of iron-sulfate minerals, including phases identified on Mars. The presence of these sulfates has provided a unique opportunity for scientists to sample associated waters, evaluate water-mineral equilibria, and understand microbes living in these extreme conditions.
Sulfate Minerals at Iron Mountain >>
Connections to Mars Research
The mineralogy at Iron Mountain can serve as a proxy for understanding the formation of iron oxides and sulfates on Mars. The extreme conditions at Iron Mountain provide a unique setting that has allowed significant scientific advances to be made in environmental geochemistry, mineralogy, microbiology, and Mars analog studies.
Iron Mountain and the Red Planet >>
Below are data or web applications associated with this project.
Field and Laboratory data of pipe scale forming in acid mine drainage pipelines at Iron Mountain and Leviathan Mines, California
Below are multimedia items associated with this project.
Below are publications associated with this project.
Challenges in recovering resources from acid mine drainage
An overview of environmental impacts and reclamation efforts at the Iron Mountain mine, Shasta County, California
Preserved filamentous microbial biosignatures in the Brick Flat gossan, Iron Mountain, California
Biogenic iron mineralization at Iron Mountain, CA with implications for detection with the Mars Curiosity rover
Raman spectroscopy of efflorescent sulfate salts from Iron Mountain Mine Superfund Site, California
Characterization and remediation of iron(III) oxide-rich scale in a pipeline carrying acid mine drainage at Iron Mountain Mine, California, USA
Selected trace elements in the Sacramento River, California: Occurrence and distribution
Distribution and geochemistry of selected trace elements in the Sacramento River near Keswick Reservoir
Vibrational, X-ray absorption, and Mössbauer spectra of sulfate minerals from the weathered massive sulfide deposit at Iron Mountain, California
Microbial production of isotopically light iron(II) in a modern chemically precipitated sediment and implications for isotopic variations in ancient rocks
Metals fate and transport modelling in streams and watersheds: state of the science and USEPA workshop review
Distribution, thickness, and volume of fine-grained sediment from precipitation of metals from acid-mine waters in Keswick Reservoir, Shasta County, California
- Overview
At its peak production, Iron Mountain ranked as the tenth largest copper production site in the world, sixth in the U.S. and first in California. During its operation, from 1879 - 1963, ten different mines throughout the site's 4,400 acres were the source of not just copper, but also silver, iron, gold, zinc and pyrite (iron sulfide).
A century of active mining at Iron Mountain took an environmental toll. The first documented consequence of mining was fish kills in the Sacramento River in 1899, followed by severe air pollution from the open-air heap roasting and smelters that stripped the land of vegetation near the town of Keswick along lower Spring Creek. As mining operations increased, so did pollution. Acid mine water seeping into the Sacramento River, sizable fish kills, and sediment deposits in the Spring Creek Arm of Keswick Reservoir have all plagued the area. To compound the issue, the city of Redding receives its drinking water from the Sacramento River, downstream from the Iron Mountain site. An uncontrolled release of Iron Mountain acid mine drainage could potentially threaten the quality of the drinking-water supply.
Acid mine draining flowing in a stream near the Iron Mountain mine in northern California near Redding. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is metal-rich, acidic water that is the result of water from mining activities flowing over or through rocks containing pyrite, a sulfur bearing mineral. This water reacts with pyrite and air to form sulfuric acid and dissolved iron. The chemical reactions that form AMD are sped up greatly by the activity of iron- and sulfur-oxidizing microbes, including bacteria and Archaea (formerly known as archaebacteria). AMD also further dissolves other heavy metals that are present at Iron Mountain (copper, zinc and cadmium) into ground or surface water. (Public domain.) Remediation
In 1983, the site was one of the first listed on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Priority List as part of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or "Superfund"). Its ranking was the third most hazardous site in the State of California. Several successive studies recommended remedial measures to clean up contamination sources at the Iron Mountain site. Starting in 1986, the EPA authorized four Records of Decision (RODs) that enforced specific clean up tasks, such as partial capping, surface-water diversions, tailings removal, and lime neutralization treatment of the most acidic, metal-rich flows, which have reduced copper and zinc loads by 95%.
For further information, see:
Timeline of Mining and Remediation History
Pipe Scale Study
As acidic water at Iron Mountain is transported away from inactive mining sites to a treatment plant, microbial oxidation causes iron in the acid mine drainage to accumulate on the inside of the pipeline, resulting in pipe scale. The encrusted pipes interfere with treatment efforts and cause costly management problems when pipe-scale buildup clogs pipelines and other treatment structures. USGS scientists are working with the EPA to research strategies to prevent or retard scale formation in the pipeline.
Pipe Scale Studies At Iron Mountain Mines >>
Significance of Sulfates
Sulfide oxidation at Iron Mountain has led to extremely acid mine drainage and the active formation of a wide variety of iron-sulfate minerals, including phases identified on Mars. The presence of these sulfates has provided a unique opportunity for scientists to sample associated waters, evaluate water-mineral equilibria, and understand microbes living in these extreme conditions.
Sulfate Minerals at Iron Mountain >>
Connections to Mars Research
The mineralogy at Iron Mountain can serve as a proxy for understanding the formation of iron oxides and sulfates on Mars. The extreme conditions at Iron Mountain provide a unique setting that has allowed significant scientific advances to be made in environmental geochemistry, mineralogy, microbiology, and Mars analog studies.
Iron Mountain and the Red Planet >>
- Data
Below are data or web applications associated with this project.
Field and Laboratory data of pipe scale forming in acid mine drainage pipelines at Iron Mountain and Leviathan Mines, California
Pipelines carrying acid mine drainage at Iron Mountain and Leviathan Mines (CA, USA) develop pipe scale, a precipitate that forms inside the pipelines. The U.S. Geological Survey is studying the composition of the pipe scale and the acid mine drainage water flowing through the pipeline through field samples and laboratory experimentation. This data release provides the data from the studies of the - Multimedia
Below are multimedia items associated with this project.
- Publications
Below are publications associated with this project.
Filter Total Items: 23Challenges in recovering resources from acid mine drainage
Metal recovery from mine waters and effluents is not a new approach but one that has occurred largely opportunistically over the last four millennia. Due to the need for low-cost resources and increasingly stringent environmental conditions, mine waters are being considered in a fresh light with a designed, deliberate approach to resource recovery often as part of a larger water treatment evaluatiAuthorsD. Kirk Nordstrom, Robert J. Bowell, Kate M. Campbell, Charles N. AlpersAn overview of environmental impacts and reclamation efforts at the Iron Mountain mine, Shasta County, California
No abstract availableAuthorsJames A Jacobs, Stephen M. Testa, Charles N. Alpers, D. Kirk NordstromPreserved filamentous microbial biosignatures in the Brick Flat gossan, Iron Mountain, California
A variety of actively precipitating mineral environments preserve morphological evidence of microbial biosignatures. One such environment with preserved microbial biosignatures is the oxidized portion of a massive sulfide deposit, or gossan, such as that at Iron Mountain, California. This gossan may serve as a mineralogical analogue to some ancient martian environments due to the presence of oxidiAuthorsAmy J. Williams, Dawn Y. Sumner, Charles N. Alpers, Suniti Karunatillake, Beda A HofmannBiogenic iron mineralization at Iron Mountain, CA with implications for detection with the Mars Curiosity rover
(Introduction) Microbe-mineral interactions and biosignature preservation in oxidized sulfidic ore bodies (gossans) are prime candidates for astrobiological study. Such oxidized iron systems have been proposed as analogs for some Martian environments. Recent studies identified microbial fossils preserved as mineral-coated filaments. This study documents microbially-mediated mineral biosignatures iAuthorsAmy J. Williams, Dawn Y. Sumner, Charles N. Alpers, Kate M. Campbell, D. Kirk NordstromRaman spectroscopy of efflorescent sulfate salts from Iron Mountain Mine Superfund Site, California
The Iron Mountain Mine Superfund Site near Redding, California, is a massive sulfide ore deposit that was mined for iron, silver, gold, copper, zinc, and pyrite intermittently for nearly 100 years. As a result, both water and air reached the sulfide deposits deep within the mountain, producing acid mine drainage consisting of sulfuric acid and heavy metals from the ore. Particularly, the drainageAuthorsPablo Sobron, Charles N. AlpersCharacterization and remediation of iron(III) oxide-rich scale in a pipeline carrying acid mine drainage at Iron Mountain Mine, California, USA
http://imwa.info/docs/imwa_2013/IMWA2013_Campbell_481.pdfAuthorsKate M. Campbell, Charles N. Alpers, D. Kirk Nordstrom, Alex E. Blum, Amy WilliamsSelected trace elements in the Sacramento River, California: Occurrence and distribution
The impact of trace elements from the Iron Mountain Superfund site on the Sacramento River and selected tributaries is examined. The concentration and distribution of many trace elements—including aluminum, arsenic, boron, barium, beryllium, bismuth, cadmium, cerium, cobalt, chromium, cesium, copper, dysprosium, erbium, europium, iron, gadolinium, holmium, potassium, lanthanum, lithium, lutetium,AuthorsHoward E. Taylor, Ronald C. Antweiler, David A. Roth, Peter D. Dileanis, Charles N. AlpersDistribution and geochemistry of selected trace elements in the Sacramento River near Keswick Reservoir
The effect of heavy metals from the Iron Mountain Mines (IMM) Superfund site on the upper Sacramento River is examined using data from water and bed sediment samples collected during 1996–97. Relative to surrounding waters, aluminum, cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, thallium, zinc and the rare-earth elements (REE) were all present in high concentrations in effluent from Spring CreekAuthorsRonald C. Antweiler, Howard E. Taylor, Charles N. AlpersVibrational, X-ray absorption, and Mössbauer spectra of sulfate minerals from the weathered massive sulfide deposit at Iron Mountain, California
The Iron Mountain Mine Superfund site in California is a prime example of an acid mine drainage (AMD) system with well developed assemblages of sulfate minerals typical for such settings. Here we present and discuss the vibrational (infrared), X-ray absorption, and M??ssbauer spectra of a number of these phases, augmented by spectra of a few synthetic sulfates related to the AMD phases. The mineraAuthorsJuraj Majzlan, Charles N. Alpers, Christian Bender Koch, R. Blaine McCleskey, Satish B.C. Myneni, John M. NeilMicrobial production of isotopically light iron(II) in a modern chemically precipitated sediment and implications for isotopic variations in ancient rocks
The inventories and Fe isotope composition of aqueous Fe(II) and solid-phase Fe compounds were quantified in neutral-pH, chemically precipitated sediments downstream of the Iron Mountain acid mine drainage site in northern California, USA. The sediments contain high concentrations of amorphous Fe(III) oxyhydroxides [Fe(III)am] that allow dissimilatory iron reduction (DIR) to predominate over Fe–SAuthorsG.E. Tangalos, B.L. Beard, C.M. Johnson, Charles N. Alpers, E.S. Shelobolina, H. Xu, H. Konishi, E.E. RodenMetals fate and transport modelling in streams and watersheds: state of the science and USEPA workshop review
Metals pollution in surface waters from point and non-point sources (NPS) is a widespread problem in the United States and worldwide (Lofts et al., 2007; USEPA, 2007). In the western United States, metals associated with acid mine drainage (AMD) from hardrock mines in mountainous areas impact aquatic ecosystems and human health (USEPA, 1997a; Caruso and Ward, 1998; Church et al., 2007). Metals fatAuthorsB.S. Caruso, T.J. Cox, Robert L. Runkel, M.L. Velleux, Kenneth E. Bencala, D. Kirk Nordstrom, P.Y. Julien, B. A. Butler, Charles N. Alpers, A. Marion, Kathleen S. SmithDistribution, thickness, and volume of fine-grained sediment from precipitation of metals from acid-mine waters in Keswick Reservoir, Shasta County, California
In February 1993, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) acquired high-resolution seismic-reflection data to map the distribution and thickness of fine-grained sediments associated with acid-mine drainage in Keswick Reservoir on the Sacramento River, near Redding, California. In the Spring Creek Arm of Keswick Reservoir, the sediments occurred in three distinct accumulations; thicknesses are greater thAuthorsTerry R. Bruns, Charles N. Alpers, Paul Carlson