Snow scientists with the USGS are unraveling specific weather, climate, and snowpack factors that contribute to large magnitude avalanches in an effort to understand these events as both a hazard and a landscape–level disturbance. The Snow and Avalanche Project (SNAP) advances our understanding of avalanche-climate interactions and wet snow avalanches, and improves public safety through innovative research and emerging technologies that are readily applied to avalanche forecasting and risk management.
Avalanche Frequency and Magnitude Studies: Using historical observational datasets and analysis of tree-rings to develop avalanche chronologies, USGS scientists evaluate how avalanche frequency and character vary across space and time and investigate the primary drivers of this variability.
Wet Snow Avalanche Research: USGS avalanche scientists examine weather, climate, and snowpack variables to unravel the complex nature of factors that contribute to wet snow avalanches. Understanding the influence of specific climate and snowpack factors will translate into understanding avalanche cycles in a changing climate.
Remote Sensing Tools Advance Avalanche Research: Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs) and Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry are methods that show potential for quantifying snowpack variability at a scale useful for avalanche risk assessment. The exploration of these methods, and the use of historical satellite time series imagery, aims to advance understanding of avalanches as a landscape-level disturbance and enhance forecasting capabilities and public safety.
Going-to-the-Sun Road Avalanche Forecasting Program: In 2002, Glacier National Park instituted its first formal avalanche hazard forecasting program for snow removal operations. In addition to forecasting, the program also provides real-time snow safety and has increased avalanche awareness among equipment operators through regular avalanche safety training.
Related Links For More Information:
USGS Snow and Avalanche Project
Below are other science projects associated with this project.
Science in Glacier National Park
Below are data or web applications associated with this project.
2020 winter timeseries of UAS derived digital surface models (DSMs) from the Hourglass study site, Bridger Mountains, Montana, USA
Avalanche occurrence records along the Going-to-the-Sun Road, Glacier National Park, Montana from 2003-2023 (ver. 3.0, July 2023)
Tree ring dataset for a regional avalanche chronology in northwest Montana, 1636-2017
Below are publications associated with this project.
Assessing the seasonal evolution of snow depth spatial variability and scaling in complex mountain terrain
Climate drivers of large magnitude snow avalanche years in the U.S. northern Rocky Mountains
A regional spatio-temporal analysis of large magnitude snow avalanches using tree rings
Research Note: How old are the people who die in avalanches? A look into the ages of avalanche victims in the United States (1950-2018)
Detecting snow depth change in avalanche path starting zones using uninhabited aerial systems and structure from motion photogrammetry
Identifying major avalanche years from a regional tree-ring based avalanche chronology for the U.S. Northern Rocky Mountains
On the exchange of sensible and latent heat between the atmosphere and melting snow
Case study: 2016 Natural glide and wet slab avalanche cycle, Going-to-the-Sun Road, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA
Using structure from motion photogrammetry to examine glide snow avalanches
Terrain parameters of glide snow avalanches and a simple spatial glide snow avalanche model
Examining spring wet slab and glide avalanche occurrence along the Going-to-the-Sun Road corridor, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA
Timing of wet snow avalanche activity: An analysis from Glacier National Park, Montana, USA.
Below are news stories associated with this project.
- Overview
Snow scientists with the USGS are unraveling specific weather, climate, and snowpack factors that contribute to large magnitude avalanches in an effort to understand these events as both a hazard and a landscape–level disturbance. The Snow and Avalanche Project (SNAP) advances our understanding of avalanche-climate interactions and wet snow avalanches, and improves public safety through innovative research and emerging technologies that are readily applied to avalanche forecasting and risk management.
Avalanche Frequency and Magnitude Studies: Using historical observational datasets and analysis of tree-rings to develop avalanche chronologies, USGS scientists evaluate how avalanche frequency and character vary across space and time and investigate the primary drivers of this variability.
Wet Snow Avalanche Research: USGS avalanche scientists examine weather, climate, and snowpack variables to unravel the complex nature of factors that contribute to wet snow avalanches. Understanding the influence of specific climate and snowpack factors will translate into understanding avalanche cycles in a changing climate.
Remote Sensing Tools Advance Avalanche Research: Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs) and Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry are methods that show potential for quantifying snowpack variability at a scale useful for avalanche risk assessment. The exploration of these methods, and the use of historical satellite time series imagery, aims to advance understanding of avalanches as a landscape-level disturbance and enhance forecasting capabilities and public safety.
Going-to-the-Sun Road Avalanche Forecasting Program: In 2002, Glacier National Park instituted its first formal avalanche hazard forecasting program for snow removal operations. In addition to forecasting, the program also provides real-time snow safety and has increased avalanche awareness among equipment operators through regular avalanche safety training.
Related Links For More Information:
USGS Snow and Avalanche Project
- Science
Below are other science projects associated with this project.
Science in Glacier National Park
Glacier National Park (GNP) is considered a stronghold for a large diversity of plant and animal species and harbors some of the last remaining populations of threatened and endangered species such as grizzly bear and bull trout, as well as non threatened keystone species such as bighorn sheep and black bear. The mountain ecosystems of GNP that support these species are dynamic and influenced by... - Data
Below are data or web applications associated with this project.
2020 winter timeseries of UAS derived digital surface models (DSMs) from the Hourglass study site, Bridger Mountains, Montana, USA
Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) flights were conducted over the headwaters of the South Fork of Brackett Creek in the Bridger Mountains of SW Montana during the winter of 2020. The flights collected overlapping imagery focused on a steep mountain couloir study site known locally as "the Hourglass." Structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry was used to process the collected imagery and create digitalAvalanche occurrence records along the Going-to-the-Sun Road, Glacier National Park, Montana from 2003-2023 (ver. 3.0, July 2023)
Starting in 2003, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center in West Glacier, MT, in collaboration with the National Park Service, collected avalanche observations along the Going to the Sun Road during the spring road-clearing operations. The spring road-clearing along Going to the Sun Road utilized a team of avalanche specialists from the USGS and Glacier National PTree ring dataset for a regional avalanche chronology in northwest Montana, 1636-2017
This dataset includes processed tree ring data from avalanche paths in Glacier National Park and the Flathead National Forest in northwest Montana. The data were processed in three distinct phases that resulted in this dataset: collection, processing, and avalanche signal analysis. This dataset consists of samples from 647 trees with 2304 growth disturbances identified from 12 avalanche paths. - Multimedia
- Publications
Below are publications associated with this project.
Filter Total Items: 15Assessing the seasonal evolution of snow depth spatial variability and scaling in complex mountain terrain
Dynamic natural processes govern snow distribution in mountainous environments throughout the world. Interactions between these different processes create spatially variable patterns of snow depth across a landscape. Variations in accumulation and redistribution occur at a variety of spatial scales, which are well established for moderate mountain terrain. However, spatial patterns of snow depth vAuthorsZachary Miller, Erich Peitzsch, Eric A. Sproles, Karl W. Birkeland, Ross T. PalomakiClimate drivers of large magnitude snow avalanche years in the U.S. northern Rocky Mountains
Large magnitude snow avalanches pose a hazard to humans and infrastructure worldwide. Analyzing the spatiotemporal behavior of avalanches and the contributory climate factors is important for understanding historical variability in climate-avalanche relationships as well as improving avalanche forecasting. We used established dendrochronological methods to develop a long-term (1867–2019) regionalAuthorsErich Peitzsch, Gregory T. Pederson, Karl W. Birkeland, Jordy Hendrikx, Daniel B. FagreA regional spatio-temporal analysis of large magnitude snow avalanches using tree rings
Snow avalanches affect transportation corridors and settlements worldwide. In many mountainous regions, robust records of avalanche frequency and magnitude are sparse or non-existent. However, dendrochronological methods can be used to fill this gap and infer historical avalanche patterns. In this study, we developed a tree-ring-based avalanche chronology for large magnitude avalanche events (sizeAuthorsErich Peitzsch, Jordy Hendrikx, Daniel Kent Stahle, Gregory T. Pederson, Karl W. Birkeland, Daniel B. FagreResearch Note: How old are the people who die in avalanches? A look into the ages of avalanche victims in the United States (1950-2018)
Since the winter of 1950-1951, 1084 individuals perished in snow avalanches in the United States. In this study, we analyze the ages of those killed (n=900) by applying non-parametric methods to annual median ages and for age groups and primary activity groups. Change point detection results suggest a significant change in 1990 in the median age of avalanche fatalities. Significant positive trendsAuthorsErich Peitzsch, Sara Boilen, Karl W. Birkeland, Spencer LoganDetecting snow depth change in avalanche path starting zones using uninhabited aerial systems and structure from motion photogrammetry
Understanding snow depth distribution and change is useful for avalanche forecasting and mitigation, runoff forecasting, and infrastructure planning. Advances in remote sensing are improving the ability to collect snow depth measurements. The development of structure from motion (SfM), a photogrammetry technique, combined with the use of uninhabited aerial systems (UASs) allows for high resolutionAuthorsErich H. Peitzsch, Daniel B. Fagre, Jordy Hendrikx, Karl W. BirkelandIdentifying major avalanche years from a regional tree-ring based avalanche chronology for the U.S. Northern Rocky Mountains
Avalanches not only pose a major hazard to people and infrastructure, but also act as an important ecological disturbance. In many mountainous regions in North America, including areas with existing transportation corridors, reliable and consistent avalanche records are sparse or non-existent. Thus, inferring long-term avalanche patterns and associated contributory climate and weather factors reAuthorsErich H. Peitzsch, Daniel B. Fagre, Gregory T. Pederson, Jordy Hendrikx, Karl W. Birkeland, Daniel StahleOn the exchange of sensible and latent heat between the atmosphere and melting snow
The snow energy balance is difficult to measure during the snowmelt period, yet critical for predictions of water yield in regions characterized by snow cover. Robust simplifications of the snowmelt energy balance can aid our understanding of water resources in a changing climate. Research to date has demonstrated that the net turbulent flux (FT) between a melting snowpack and the atmosphere is neAuthorsPaul C. Stoy, Erich H. Peitzsch, David J. A. Wood, Daniel Rottinghaus, Georg Wohlfahrt, Michael Goulden, Helen WardCase study: 2016 Natural glide and wet slab avalanche cycle, Going-to-the-Sun Road, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA
The Going-to-the-Sun Road (GTSR) is the premier tourist attraction in Glacier National Park, Montana. The GTSR also traverses through and under 40 avalanche paths which pose a hazard to National Park Service (NPS) road crews during the annual spring snow plowing operation. Through a joint collaboration between the NPS and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), a forecasting program primarily dealing wAuthorsJacob Hutchinson, Erich H. Peitzsch, Adam ClarkUsing structure from motion photogrammetry to examine glide snow avalanches
Structure from Motion (SfM), a photogrammetric technique, has been used extensively and successfully in many fields including geosciences over the past few years to create 3D models and high resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) from aerial or oblique photographs. SfM has recently been used in a limited capacity in snow avalanche research and shows promise as a tool for broader applications.AuthorsErich H. Peitzsch, Jordy Hendrikx, Daniel B. FagreTerrain parameters of glide snow avalanches and a simple spatial glide snow avalanche model
Glide snow avalanches are dangerous and difficult to predict. Despite substantial recent research there is still inadequate understanding regarding the controls of glide snow avalanche release. Glide snow avalanches often occur in similar terrain or the same locations annually, and repeat observations and prior work suggest that specific topography may be critical. Thus, to gain a better understanAuthorsErich H. Peitzsch, Jordy Hendrikx, Daniel B. FagreExamining spring wet slab and glide avalanche occurrence along the Going-to-the-Sun Road corridor, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA
Wet slab and glide snow avalanches are dangerous and yet can be particularly difficult to predict. Wet slab and glide avalanches are presumably triggered by free water moving through the snowpack and the subsequent interaction with layer or ground interfaces, and typically occur in the spring during warming and subsequent melt periods. In Glacier National Park (GNP), Montana, both types of avalancAuthorsErich H. Peitzsch, Jordy Hendrikx, Daniel B. Fagre, Blase ReardonTiming of wet snow avalanche activity: An analysis from Glacier National Park, Montana, USA.
Wet snow avalanches pose a problem for annual spring road opening operations along the Going-to-the-Sun Road (GTSR) in Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. A suite of meteorological metrics and snow observations has been used to forecast for wet slab and glide avalanche activity. However, the timing of spring wet slab and glide avalanches is a difficult process to forecast and requires new capabilAuthorsErich H. Peitzsch, Jordy Hendrikx, Daniel B. Fagre - News
Below are news stories associated with this project.