At most places on the Earth's surface, the compass doesn't point exactly toward geographic north. The deviation of the compass from true north is an angle called "declination" (or "magnetic declination"). It is a quantity that has been a nuisance to navigators for centuries, especially since it varies with both geographic location and time. It might surprise you to know that at very high latitudes, the compass can even point south!
The collar of USGS topographic maps shows the magnetic declination at the center of the map the year that the map was made. That's important information for anyone who is using the map and a compass to navigate. NOAA has an online calculator for estimating the declination at any longitude/latitude on a specific date.
Declination is simply a manifestation of the complexity of the geomagnetic field. The field is not perfectly symmetrical; it has non-dipolar "ingredients," and the dipole itself is not perfectly aligned with the rotational axis of the Earth. If you were to stand at the north geomagnetic pole, your compass, held horizontally as usual, would not have a preference to point in any particular direction, and the same would be true if you were standing at the south geomagnetic pole. If you were to hold your compass on its side, the north-pointing end of the compass would point down at the north geomagnetic pole, and it would point up at the south geomagnetic pole.
The USGS Geomagnetism Program operates magnetic observatories in more than a dozen locations around the United States.
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Are we about to have a magnetic reversal?
Almost certainly not.Since the invention of the magnetometer in the 1830s, the average intensity of the magnetic field at the Earth's surface has decreased by about ten percent. We know from paleomagnetic records that the intensity of the magnetic field decreases by as much as ninety percent at the Earth's surface during a reversal. But those same paleomagnetic records also show that the field...
Could magnetic reversals be caused by meteorite or comet impacts?
Although extremely unlikely, it might be possible for a reversal of the Earth's magnetic field to be triggered by a meteorite or comet impact, or even for it to be caused by something more "gentle," such as the melting of the polar ice caps. Self-contained dynamic systems like Earth’s dynamo can have reversals without any outside influence. Reversals of Earth's magnetic field can simply happen...
Do animals use the magnetic field for orientation?
Yes. There is evidence that some animals, like sea turtles and salmon, have the ability to sense the Earth's magnetic field (although probably not consciously) and to use this sense for navigation.
Do any mass extinctions correlate with magnetic reversals?
No. There is no evidence of a correlation between mass extinctions and magnetic pole reversals.Earth’s magnetic field and its atmosphere protect us from solar radiation. It’s not clear whether a weak magnetic field during a polarity transition would allow enough solar radiation to reach the Earth's surface that it would cause extinctions. But reversals happen rather frequently--every million years...
Does the Earth's magnetic field affect human health?
The Earth's magnetic field does not directly affect human health. Humans evolved to live on this planet. High altitude pilots and astronauts can experience higher levels of radiation during magnetic storms, but the hazard is due to the radiation, not the magnetic field itself. Geomagnetism can also impact the electrically based technology that we rely on, but it does not impact people themselves...
How does the Earth's core generate a magnetic field?
The Earth's outer core is in a state of turbulent convection as the result of radioactive heating and chemical differentiation. This sets up a process that is a bit like a naturally occurring electrical generator, where the convective kinetic energy is converted to electrical and magnetic energy. Basically, the motion of the electrically conducting iron in the presence of the Earth's magnetic...
Is the Earth a magnet?
In a sense, yes. The Earth is composed of layers having different chemical compositions and different physical properties. The crust of the Earth has some permanent magnetization, and the Earth’s core generates its own magnetic field, sustaining the main part of the field we measure at the surface. So we could say that the Earth is, therefore, a "magnet." But permanent magnetization cannot occur...
Is it true that Earth's magnetic field occasionally reverses its polarity?
Yes. We can see evidence of magnetic polarity reversals by examining the geologic record. When lavas or sediments solidify, they often preserve a signature of the ambient magnetic field at the time of deposition.Incredible as it may seem, the magnetic field occasionally flips over! The geomagnetic poles are currently roughly coincident with the geographic poles, but occasionally the magnetic poles...
Why measure the magnetic field at the Earth's surface? Wouldn't satellites be better suited for space-weather studies?
Satellites and ground-based magnetometers are both important for making measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field. They are not redundant but are instead complementary: Satellites provide good geographical coverage for data collection. Ground-based magnetometers are much less expensive and much easier to install than satellites. An array of magnetometers provides coverage from numerous locations...
What do the different north arrows on a USGS topographic map mean?
A diagram at the bottom of most USGS topographic maps shows three north arrows--true north, grid north, and magnetic north--and the angles between them. Some maps, especially very old maps, do not have this diagram. True north, also called geodetic north or geographic north, is the direction of the line of longitude that bisects the quadrangle. All longitude lines converge to points at the north...
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- FAQ
Are we about to have a magnetic reversal?
Almost certainly not.Since the invention of the magnetometer in the 1830s, the average intensity of the magnetic field at the Earth's surface has decreased by about ten percent. We know from paleomagnetic records that the intensity of the magnetic field decreases by as much as ninety percent at the Earth's surface during a reversal. But those same paleomagnetic records also show that the field...
Could magnetic reversals be caused by meteorite or comet impacts?
Although extremely unlikely, it might be possible for a reversal of the Earth's magnetic field to be triggered by a meteorite or comet impact, or even for it to be caused by something more "gentle," such as the melting of the polar ice caps. Self-contained dynamic systems like Earth’s dynamo can have reversals without any outside influence. Reversals of Earth's magnetic field can simply happen...
Do animals use the magnetic field for orientation?
Yes. There is evidence that some animals, like sea turtles and salmon, have the ability to sense the Earth's magnetic field (although probably not consciously) and to use this sense for navigation.
Do any mass extinctions correlate with magnetic reversals?
No. There is no evidence of a correlation between mass extinctions and magnetic pole reversals.Earth’s magnetic field and its atmosphere protect us from solar radiation. It’s not clear whether a weak magnetic field during a polarity transition would allow enough solar radiation to reach the Earth's surface that it would cause extinctions. But reversals happen rather frequently--every million years...
Does the Earth's magnetic field affect human health?
The Earth's magnetic field does not directly affect human health. Humans evolved to live on this planet. High altitude pilots and astronauts can experience higher levels of radiation during magnetic storms, but the hazard is due to the radiation, not the magnetic field itself. Geomagnetism can also impact the electrically based technology that we rely on, but it does not impact people themselves...
How does the Earth's core generate a magnetic field?
The Earth's outer core is in a state of turbulent convection as the result of radioactive heating and chemical differentiation. This sets up a process that is a bit like a naturally occurring electrical generator, where the convective kinetic energy is converted to electrical and magnetic energy. Basically, the motion of the electrically conducting iron in the presence of the Earth's magnetic...
Is the Earth a magnet?
In a sense, yes. The Earth is composed of layers having different chemical compositions and different physical properties. The crust of the Earth has some permanent magnetization, and the Earth’s core generates its own magnetic field, sustaining the main part of the field we measure at the surface. So we could say that the Earth is, therefore, a "magnet." But permanent magnetization cannot occur...
Is it true that Earth's magnetic field occasionally reverses its polarity?
Yes. We can see evidence of magnetic polarity reversals by examining the geologic record. When lavas or sediments solidify, they often preserve a signature of the ambient magnetic field at the time of deposition.Incredible as it may seem, the magnetic field occasionally flips over! The geomagnetic poles are currently roughly coincident with the geographic poles, but occasionally the magnetic poles...
Why measure the magnetic field at the Earth's surface? Wouldn't satellites be better suited for space-weather studies?
Satellites and ground-based magnetometers are both important for making measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field. They are not redundant but are instead complementary: Satellites provide good geographical coverage for data collection. Ground-based magnetometers are much less expensive and much easier to install than satellites. An array of magnetometers provides coverage from numerous locations...
What do the different north arrows on a USGS topographic map mean?
A diagram at the bottom of most USGS topographic maps shows three north arrows--true north, grid north, and magnetic north--and the angles between them. Some maps, especially very old maps, do not have this diagram. True north, also called geodetic north or geographic north, is the direction of the line of longitude that bisects the quadrangle. All longitude lines converge to points at the north...
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