Linking Selenium Sources to Ecosystems: Irrigation
Adverse effects of selenium (Se) on fish and waterfowl in wetlands receiving agricultural drainage occurred in the 1980s in the San Joaquin Valley of California. The identified mechanisms of Se enrichment helped resolve Se toxicity problems associated with irrigated agriculture in the arid West. Bioaccumulation of Se in ancient marine sediments is postulated as a primary pathway in source rocks.
The Kesterson Effect - from Rock to Duck
The geohydrologic balance of Se ultimately determines the degree of contamination build-up in the San Joaquin Valley. The primary geologic inventory of Se in the Coast Ranges is the source of influx. Drainage, whether natural or accelerated by engineering, is the source of efflux. Se concentration in agricultural drainage is not diluted when flow increases, except in extreme precipitation events, (e.g., an El Nino year). Rather, increasing input of water results in increased Se concentrations and loads, indicating a large internal reservoir of Se that currently influences water quality.
The most well known case of Se poisoning occurred in 1983 at Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Widespread fish mortality and deformities in ducks, grebes, coots, and shorebirds occurred in wetlands fed by agricultural irrigation drainage. The types of deformities most frequently observed were defects of eyes, feet or legs, beaks, brain, and abdomen. Further south in Tulare Basin, a higher level of tetratogenicity (56.7%) occurred in shorebirds inhabiting ponds where accelerated evaporation was taking place. Drainage canals remain posted with human health advisories against consumption of fish.
Western United States
The U.S. Department of the Interior manages approximately 200 wildlife areas that receive water from more than 400 USDOI water projects in 17 western states. With Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge as a prototype, reconnaissance areas for study of Se contamination by the USDOI were generally selected based on six factors being present:
- A basin of saline marine sedimentary origin that includes soils derived from Cretaceous deposits (Note: See mining for updated source rock discussion);
- Oxidized, alkaline soils that promote the formation of selenate, the mobile form of Se;
- An arid to semiarid climate with evaporation much greater than precipitation, leading to salination of soils;
- Irrigated agriculture served by USDOI-supported irrigation-drainage facilities to leach salts;
- Saline groundwater aquifers resulting mainly from alluvial clay layers that impede downward movement of irrigation water and cause water logging of the crop root zone;
- Drainage by natural gradient or buried tile drain networks to USDOI managed migratory-bird refuges, wetland areas, or other areas in receipt of USDOI waters.
Names and locations of the 26 areas studied by the USDOI are shown in the accompanying map. The illustrated sites encompass the areas historically shown to support seleniferous open-range forage plants associated with the Pierre and Niobrara Formations (or their equivalents). Livestock deaths attributed to Se poisoning from these plants occurred in Wyoming, Nebraska, and South Dakota in the 1930 and 1940s, leading to land being withdrawn from use by livestock. Following this "open range era" of Se contamination, the "aquatic era" of Se contamination was marked by irrigation-drainage Se sources.
Those study areas where contaminated agricultural drainage caused harmful accumulation of Se are the following:
- Tulare Basin, San Joaquin Valley, California
- Salton Sea, California
- Middle Green River Basin, Utah
- Stillwater Management Area, Nevada
- Kendrick Reclamation Project, Wyoming
- Gunnison-Grand Valley Project, Colorado
- San Juan River Area, New Mexico
- Sun River Area, Montana
- Riverton Reclamation Project, Wyoming
- Belle Fourche Reclamation, South Dakota
- Dolores-Ute Mountain Area, Colorado
- Lower Colorado River Valley, California-Arizona
- Middle Arkansas Basin, Colorado-Kansas
- Pine River Area, Colorado
References
Presser, T. S., and Ohlendorf, H. M., 1987, Biogeochemical cycling of selenium in the San Joaquin Valley, California: Environmental Management, v. 11, p. 805-821.
Skorupa, J.P. and Ohlendorf, H.M, 1991, Contaminants in drainage water and avian risk thresholds, in A. Dinar and D. Zilberman, eds., The Economics and Management of Water and Drainage in Agriculture, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston Massachusetts, p. 345-368.
Presser, T.S., 1994, The Kesterson Effect: Environmental Management, v. 18, no. 3, p. 437-454.
Presser, T.S., Sylvester, M.A., and Low, W.H., 1994, Bioaccumulation of selenium from natural geologic sources in the Western States and its potential consequences: Environmental Management, v. 18, no. 3, p. 423-436.
Skorupa, J.P., 1998, Selenium poisoning of fish and wildlife in nature: lessons from twelve real-world examples, in Frankenberger, W.T., Jr., and Engberg, R.A., eds., Environmental Chemistry of Selenium: Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, p. 315-354.
Presser, T.S. and Piper, D.Z., 1998, Mass balance approach to selenium cycling through the San Joaquin Valley, sources to river to bay, in Frankenberger, W.T., Jr., and Engberg, R.A., eds., Environmental Chemistry of Selenium: Marcel Dekker Inc., New York., p. 153-182.
Seiler, R.L., Skorupa, J.P., Naftz, D.L. and Nolan, B.T., 2003, Irrigation-induced contamination of water, sediment, and biota in the western United States-synthesis of data from the National Irrigation Water Quality Program: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1655, 123 p.
Presser, T.S., 2004, Agriculture in the Western United States.
Below are other science projects associated with the Linking Selenium Sources to Ecosystems project.
Linking Selenium Sources to Ecosystems: Local and Global Perspectives
Linking Selenium Sources to Ecosystems: Mining
Linking Selenium Sources to Ecosystems: Refining
Linking Selenium Sources to Ecosystems: Modeling
Adverse effects of selenium (Se) on fish and waterfowl in wetlands receiving agricultural drainage occurred in the 1980s in the San Joaquin Valley of California. The identified mechanisms of Se enrichment helped resolve Se toxicity problems associated with irrigated agriculture in the arid West. Bioaccumulation of Se in ancient marine sediments is postulated as a primary pathway in source rocks.
The Kesterson Effect - from Rock to Duck
The geohydrologic balance of Se ultimately determines the degree of contamination build-up in the San Joaquin Valley. The primary geologic inventory of Se in the Coast Ranges is the source of influx. Drainage, whether natural or accelerated by engineering, is the source of efflux. Se concentration in agricultural drainage is not diluted when flow increases, except in extreme precipitation events, (e.g., an El Nino year). Rather, increasing input of water results in increased Se concentrations and loads, indicating a large internal reservoir of Se that currently influences water quality.
The most well known case of Se poisoning occurred in 1983 at Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Widespread fish mortality and deformities in ducks, grebes, coots, and shorebirds occurred in wetlands fed by agricultural irrigation drainage. The types of deformities most frequently observed were defects of eyes, feet or legs, beaks, brain, and abdomen. Further south in Tulare Basin, a higher level of tetratogenicity (56.7%) occurred in shorebirds inhabiting ponds where accelerated evaporation was taking place. Drainage canals remain posted with human health advisories against consumption of fish.
Western United States
The U.S. Department of the Interior manages approximately 200 wildlife areas that receive water from more than 400 USDOI water projects in 17 western states. With Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge as a prototype, reconnaissance areas for study of Se contamination by the USDOI were generally selected based on six factors being present:
- A basin of saline marine sedimentary origin that includes soils derived from Cretaceous deposits (Note: See mining for updated source rock discussion);
- Oxidized, alkaline soils that promote the formation of selenate, the mobile form of Se;
- An arid to semiarid climate with evaporation much greater than precipitation, leading to salination of soils;
- Irrigated agriculture served by USDOI-supported irrigation-drainage facilities to leach salts;
- Saline groundwater aquifers resulting mainly from alluvial clay layers that impede downward movement of irrigation water and cause water logging of the crop root zone;
- Drainage by natural gradient or buried tile drain networks to USDOI managed migratory-bird refuges, wetland areas, or other areas in receipt of USDOI waters.
Names and locations of the 26 areas studied by the USDOI are shown in the accompanying map. The illustrated sites encompass the areas historically shown to support seleniferous open-range forage plants associated with the Pierre and Niobrara Formations (or their equivalents). Livestock deaths attributed to Se poisoning from these plants occurred in Wyoming, Nebraska, and South Dakota in the 1930 and 1940s, leading to land being withdrawn from use by livestock. Following this "open range era" of Se contamination, the "aquatic era" of Se contamination was marked by irrigation-drainage Se sources.
Those study areas where contaminated agricultural drainage caused harmful accumulation of Se are the following:
- Tulare Basin, San Joaquin Valley, California
- Salton Sea, California
- Middle Green River Basin, Utah
- Stillwater Management Area, Nevada
- Kendrick Reclamation Project, Wyoming
- Gunnison-Grand Valley Project, Colorado
- San Juan River Area, New Mexico
- Sun River Area, Montana
- Riverton Reclamation Project, Wyoming
- Belle Fourche Reclamation, South Dakota
- Dolores-Ute Mountain Area, Colorado
- Lower Colorado River Valley, California-Arizona
- Middle Arkansas Basin, Colorado-Kansas
- Pine River Area, Colorado
References
Presser, T. S., and Ohlendorf, H. M., 1987, Biogeochemical cycling of selenium in the San Joaquin Valley, California: Environmental Management, v. 11, p. 805-821.
Skorupa, J.P. and Ohlendorf, H.M, 1991, Contaminants in drainage water and avian risk thresholds, in A. Dinar and D. Zilberman, eds., The Economics and Management of Water and Drainage in Agriculture, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston Massachusetts, p. 345-368.
Presser, T.S., 1994, The Kesterson Effect: Environmental Management, v. 18, no. 3, p. 437-454.
Presser, T.S., Sylvester, M.A., and Low, W.H., 1994, Bioaccumulation of selenium from natural geologic sources in the Western States and its potential consequences: Environmental Management, v. 18, no. 3, p. 423-436.
Skorupa, J.P., 1998, Selenium poisoning of fish and wildlife in nature: lessons from twelve real-world examples, in Frankenberger, W.T., Jr., and Engberg, R.A., eds., Environmental Chemistry of Selenium: Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, p. 315-354.
Presser, T.S. and Piper, D.Z., 1998, Mass balance approach to selenium cycling through the San Joaquin Valley, sources to river to bay, in Frankenberger, W.T., Jr., and Engberg, R.A., eds., Environmental Chemistry of Selenium: Marcel Dekker Inc., New York., p. 153-182.
Seiler, R.L., Skorupa, J.P., Naftz, D.L. and Nolan, B.T., 2003, Irrigation-induced contamination of water, sediment, and biota in the western United States-synthesis of data from the National Irrigation Water Quality Program: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1655, 123 p.
Presser, T.S., 2004, Agriculture in the Western United States.
Below are other science projects associated with the Linking Selenium Sources to Ecosystems project.