Robert R. Seal
Robert (Bob) Seal is a Research Geologist with the USGS Geology, Energy & Minerals (GEM) Science Center in Reston, VA.
Science and Products
Filter Total Items: 28
Pre-mining environmental baseline characterization of the Hajigak iron deposit: 2019 field season Pre-mining environmental baseline characterization of the Hajigak iron deposit: 2019 field season
These data include geochemical analyses of rock, mine waste, sediment, soil, and water samples collected from the Hajigak iron deposit, Bamyan and Wardak Provinces, Afghanistan in 2019.
Pre-mining environmental baseline characterization of the Aynak copper deposit: 2019 field season Pre-mining environmental baseline characterization of the Aynak copper deposit: 2019 field season
These data include geochemical analyses of rock, mine waste, sediment, and soil samples collected from the Aynak copper deposit, Logar Province, Afghanistan in 2019. In addition, these data include geochemical analyses of water samples collected from the Aynak copper deposit, Logar Province, Afghanistan in 2019.
Solid and aqueous geochemistry for mill tailings and other ore processing materials Solid and aqueous geochemistry for mill tailings and other ore processing materials
These worksheets contain data from geochemical analyses of solid mill tailings and other ore processing materials from worldwide localities, and leachates from those samples.
Mineral abundances within bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Mineral abundances within bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Mineral abundances within bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from sampled historical waste piles from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Oklahoma, U.S.A., were determined by Mineral Liberation Analysis (MLA) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). Data and methods reported are part of a research study published below in the 'Related External Resources' section.
Molecular speciation of Ge within sphalerite, hemimorphite, and quartz from mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Molecular speciation of Ge within sphalerite, hemimorphite, and quartz from mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Oxidation state and bonding environment of Ge in minerals within mine waste from sampled historical waste piles from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Oklahoma, U.S. were determined by linear combination fits from x-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) analysis. Ge content in quartz within these wastes was determined using XANES edge steps, and Ge content in sphalerite was compared...
Elemental concentrations for bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Elemental concentrations for bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Elemental concentrations for bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from sampled historical waste piles from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Oklahoma, U.S. were determined after dissolution via acid digests or a sodium peroxide fusion. Elemental concentrations were determined for the leachate from a simulated rainwater leach of mine wastes. Data and methods reported are part of a research...
Electron microprobe analyses of sphalerite and hemimorphite from mine wastes from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Electron microprobe analyses of sphalerite and hemimorphite from mine wastes from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Electron microprobe analyses of sphalerite (ZnS) and hemimorphite (Zn4Si2O7(OH)2·H2O) from sampled historical waste piles were conducted with a specific focus on germanium (Ge). In mine wastes at the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Oklahoma, USA, Ge is associated with ZnS (sphalerite) as expected, but weathering in the waste piles has led to a significant amount of Ge being incorporated into a...
Environmental (hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur) stable isotope data from the Elizabeth copper mine Superfund site, Vermont, USA Environmental (hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur) stable isotope data from the Elizabeth copper mine Superfund site, Vermont, USA
Stable hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and sulfur (S) isotope data were collected from the Elizabeth copper mine Superfund site, South Strafford, Vermont. Sample media include surface water (H and O), groundwater (H and O), dissolved sulfate (O and S), and sulfide minerals in bulk mill tailings samples. Where available, supporting data for water samples include discharge, pH, specific...
Geochemical characterization, acid neutralization potential, and phosphate removal capacity of modern and legacy iron and steel slag from the Chicago-Gary area of Illinois and Indiana, USA Geochemical characterization, acid neutralization potential, and phosphate removal capacity of modern and legacy iron and steel slag from the Chicago-Gary area of Illinois and Indiana, USA
Steelmaking slag from near Chicago, USA, may be a viable option for treating phosphate-rich or acidic waters. Iron and steel slags from legacy and modern operations in the Chicago-Gary area of Illinois and Indiana, USA, are predominantly composed of Ca, Fe, and Si, with generally lesser amounts of Al, Mg, and Mn. Simulated weathering tests suggest that potentially deleterious elements...
Estimates of mineral abundances based on Rietveld refinement of X-ray diffraction data from mill tailings and other ore processing materials Estimates of mineral abundances based on Rietveld refinement of X-ray diffraction data from mill tailings and other ore processing materials
This worksheet displays the results of mineral abundance estimates based on Rietveld refinement of X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses of mill tailings and other ore processing materials from worldwide localities. Data are also provided to show variation in mineral abundance estimates for subsplits in individual samples. Samples were analyzed using a PANalytical X'Pert Pro diffractometer...
Chemistry, morphology, modal mineralogy, and photomicrographs of amphiboles and other minerals in the Ironwood Iron-Formation, Gogebic Iron Range, Wisconsin, USA Chemistry, morphology, modal mineralogy, and photomicrographs of amphiboles and other minerals in the Ironwood Iron-Formation, Gogebic Iron Range, Wisconsin, USA
The Ironwood Iron-Formation, part of the Gogebic Iron Range in Wisconsin, is a Paleoproterozoic Superior-type banded iron formation (BIF) with substantial iron resource potential. The development of a Mesoproterozoic contact metamorphic aureole related to the emplacement of the Mellen Intrusive Complex resulted in the production of a variety of silicate minerals in the western portion of...
Oxide and Cation Compositions of Olivine Grains from Drill Core in the Duluth Complex, Minnesota Oxide and Cation Compositions of Olivine Grains from Drill Core in the Duluth Complex, Minnesota
The table contains oxide and cation compositions of olivine grains from drill core of the Duluth Complex, Minnesota. The oxides were determined by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and are reported in weight percent (wt%). The cations were calculated based on the oxide compositions and are reported in mole percent (mol%). Olivine is a magnesium iron orthosilicate mineral with the...
Filter Total Items: 97
Metamorphic amphiboles in the Ironwood Iron-Formation, Gogebic Iron Range, Wisconsin: Implications for potential resource development Metamorphic amphiboles in the Ironwood Iron-Formation, Gogebic Iron Range, Wisconsin: Implications for potential resource development
No abstract available.
Authors
Carlin Green, Robert R. Seal,, Nadine Piatak, William Cannon, Ryan McAleer, Julia Nord
Conceptual framework and approach for conducting a geoenvironmental assessment of undiscovered uranium resources Conceptual framework and approach for conducting a geoenvironmental assessment of undiscovered uranium resources
This report presents a novel conceptual framework and approach for conducting a geologically based environmental assessment, or geoenvironmental assessment, of undiscovered uranium resources within an area likely to contain uranium deposits. The framework is based on a source-to-receptor model that prioritizes the most likely contaminant sources, contaminant pathways, and affected...
Authors
Tanya J. Gallegos, Katherine Walton-Day, Robert R. Seal,
Micrometer-scale characterization of solid mine waste aids in closure due diligence Micrometer-scale characterization of solid mine waste aids in closure due diligence
Precious- and base-metal mining often occurs in deposits with high acid-generating potential, resulting in mine waste that contains metals in forms of varying bioavailability, and therefore toxicity. The solids that host these metals are often noncrystalline, nanometer to micrometer in size, or undetectable by readily available analytical techniques (e.g., X-ray diffraction). This...
Authors
Bryn E. Kimball, Heather E. Jamieson, Robert R. Seal,, Agatha Dobosz, Nadine Piatak
Hydrologic balance, water quality, chemical-mass balance, and geochemical modeling of hyperalkaline ponds at Big Marsh, Chicago, Illinois, 2016–17 Hydrologic balance, water quality, chemical-mass balance, and geochemical modeling of hyperalkaline ponds at Big Marsh, Chicago, Illinois, 2016–17
Hyperalkaline (pH greater than 12) ponds and groundwater exist at Big Marsh near Lake Calumet, Chicago, Illinois, a site used by the steel industry during the mid-1900s to deposit steel- and iron-making waste, in particular, slag. The hyperalkaline ponds may pose a hazard to human health and the environment. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the Environmental...
Authors
Amy Gahala, Robert R. Seal,, Nadine Piatak
Geochemical characterization of iron and steel slag and its potential to remove phosphate and neutralize acid Geochemical characterization of iron and steel slag and its potential to remove phosphate and neutralize acid
Iron and steel slags from legacy and modern operations in the Chicago-Gary area of Illinois and Indiana, USA, are predominantly composed of Ca (10 - 44 wt. % CaO), Fe, (0.3 - 28 wt. % FeO), and Si (10 - 44 wt. % SiO2), with generally lesser amounts of Al ( 1 15 wt. % Al2O3), Mg (2 11 wt. % MgO), and Mn (0.3 9 wt. % MnO). Mineralogy is dominated by CaMgAl silicates, FeCa oxides, Ca...
Authors
Nadine Piatak, Robert R. Seal,, Darryl Hoppe, Carlin Green, Paul Buszka
USGS critical minerals review USGS critical minerals review
The United States’ supply of critical minerals has been a concern and a source of potential strategic vulnerabilities for U.S. economic and national security interests for decades (for example, see Strategic and Critical Minerals Stockpiling Act, 1939). More recently, with the rapid increase in the types of materials being used in advanced technologies (Fortier et al. 2018a), and...
Authors
Steven Fortier, Jane Hammarstrom, Sarah Ryker, Warren Day, Robert R. Seal,
Tellurium Tellurium
Tellurium (Te) is a very rare element that averages only 3 parts per billion in Earth’s upper crust. It shows a close association with gold and may be present in orebodies of most gold deposit types at levels of tens to hundreds of parts per million. In large-tonnage mineral deposits, such as porphyry copper and seafloor volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, sulfide minerals may contain...
Authors
Richard Goldfarb, Byron Berger, Micheal George, Robert R. Seal,
Graphite Graphite
Graphite is a form of pure carbon that normally occurs as black crystal flakes and masses. It has important properties, such as chemical inertness, thermal stability, high electrical conductivity, and lubricity (slipperiness) that make it suitable for many industrial applications, including electronics, lubricants, metallurgy, and steelmaking. For some of these uses, no suitable...
Authors
Gilpin Robinson, Jane Hammarstrom, Donald Olson
Beryllium Beryllium
Beryllium is a mineral commodity that is used in a variety of industries to make products that are essential for the smooth functioning of a modern society. Two minerals, bertrandite (which is supplied domestically) and beryl (which is currently supplied solely by imports), are necessary to ensure a stable supply of high-purity beryllium metal, alloys, and metal-matrix composites and...
Authors
Nora Foley, Brian W. Jaskula, Nadine M. Piatak, Ruth Schulte
Platinum-group elements Platinum-group elements
The platinum-group elements (PGEs)—platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium—are metals that have similar physical and chemical properties and tend to occur together in nature. PGEs are indispensable to many industrial applications but are mined in only a few places. The availability and accessibility of PGEs could be disrupted by economic, environmental, political...
Authors
Michael Zientek, Patricia Loferski, Heather Parks, Ruth Schulte, Robert R. Seal
Zirconium and hafnium Zirconium and hafnium
Zirconium and hafnium are corrosion-resistant metals that are widely used in the chemical and nuclear industries. Most zirconium is consumed in the form of the main ore mineral zircon (ZrSiO4, or as zirconium oxide or other zirconium chemicals. Zirconium and hafnium are both refractory lithophile elements that have nearly identical charge, ionic radii, and ionic potentials. As a result...
Authors
James Jones, Nadine M. Piatak, George Bedinger
Rare-earth elements Rare-earth elements
The rare-earth elements (REEs) are 15 elements that range in atomic number from 57 (lanthanum) to 71 (lutetium); they are commonly referred to as the “lanthanides.” Yttrium (atomic number 39) is also commonly regarded as an REE because it shares chemical and physical similarities and has affinities with the lanthanides. Although REEs are not rare in terms of average crustal abundance...
Authors
Bradley Van Gosen, Philip Verplanck, Robert R. Seal,, Keith Long, Joseph Gambogi
Science and Products
Filter Total Items: 28
Pre-mining environmental baseline characterization of the Hajigak iron deposit: 2019 field season Pre-mining environmental baseline characterization of the Hajigak iron deposit: 2019 field season
These data include geochemical analyses of rock, mine waste, sediment, soil, and water samples collected from the Hajigak iron deposit, Bamyan and Wardak Provinces, Afghanistan in 2019.
Pre-mining environmental baseline characterization of the Aynak copper deposit: 2019 field season Pre-mining environmental baseline characterization of the Aynak copper deposit: 2019 field season
These data include geochemical analyses of rock, mine waste, sediment, and soil samples collected from the Aynak copper deposit, Logar Province, Afghanistan in 2019. In addition, these data include geochemical analyses of water samples collected from the Aynak copper deposit, Logar Province, Afghanistan in 2019.
Solid and aqueous geochemistry for mill tailings and other ore processing materials Solid and aqueous geochemistry for mill tailings and other ore processing materials
These worksheets contain data from geochemical analyses of solid mill tailings and other ore processing materials from worldwide localities, and leachates from those samples.
Mineral abundances within bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Mineral abundances within bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Mineral abundances within bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from sampled historical waste piles from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Oklahoma, U.S.A., were determined by Mineral Liberation Analysis (MLA) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). Data and methods reported are part of a research study published below in the 'Related External Resources' section.
Molecular speciation of Ge within sphalerite, hemimorphite, and quartz from mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Molecular speciation of Ge within sphalerite, hemimorphite, and quartz from mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Oxidation state and bonding environment of Ge in minerals within mine waste from sampled historical waste piles from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Oklahoma, U.S. were determined by linear combination fits from x-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) analysis. Ge content in quartz within these wastes was determined using XANES edge steps, and Ge content in sphalerite was compared...
Elemental concentrations for bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Elemental concentrations for bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Elemental concentrations for bulk and size-fractionated mine waste from sampled historical waste piles from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Oklahoma, U.S. were determined after dissolution via acid digests or a sodium peroxide fusion. Elemental concentrations were determined for the leachate from a simulated rainwater leach of mine wastes. Data and methods reported are part of a research...
Electron microprobe analyses of sphalerite and hemimorphite from mine wastes from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Electron microprobe analyses of sphalerite and hemimorphite from mine wastes from the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Tri-State Mining District, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Electron microprobe analyses of sphalerite (ZnS) and hemimorphite (Zn4Si2O7(OH)2·H2O) from sampled historical waste piles were conducted with a specific focus on germanium (Ge). In mine wastes at the Tar Creek Superfund Site, Oklahoma, USA, Ge is associated with ZnS (sphalerite) as expected, but weathering in the waste piles has led to a significant amount of Ge being incorporated into a...
Environmental (hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur) stable isotope data from the Elizabeth copper mine Superfund site, Vermont, USA Environmental (hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur) stable isotope data from the Elizabeth copper mine Superfund site, Vermont, USA
Stable hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and sulfur (S) isotope data were collected from the Elizabeth copper mine Superfund site, South Strafford, Vermont. Sample media include surface water (H and O), groundwater (H and O), dissolved sulfate (O and S), and sulfide minerals in bulk mill tailings samples. Where available, supporting data for water samples include discharge, pH, specific...
Geochemical characterization, acid neutralization potential, and phosphate removal capacity of modern and legacy iron and steel slag from the Chicago-Gary area of Illinois and Indiana, USA Geochemical characterization, acid neutralization potential, and phosphate removal capacity of modern and legacy iron and steel slag from the Chicago-Gary area of Illinois and Indiana, USA
Steelmaking slag from near Chicago, USA, may be a viable option for treating phosphate-rich or acidic waters. Iron and steel slags from legacy and modern operations in the Chicago-Gary area of Illinois and Indiana, USA, are predominantly composed of Ca, Fe, and Si, with generally lesser amounts of Al, Mg, and Mn. Simulated weathering tests suggest that potentially deleterious elements...
Estimates of mineral abundances based on Rietveld refinement of X-ray diffraction data from mill tailings and other ore processing materials Estimates of mineral abundances based on Rietveld refinement of X-ray diffraction data from mill tailings and other ore processing materials
This worksheet displays the results of mineral abundance estimates based on Rietveld refinement of X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses of mill tailings and other ore processing materials from worldwide localities. Data are also provided to show variation in mineral abundance estimates for subsplits in individual samples. Samples were analyzed using a PANalytical X'Pert Pro diffractometer...
Chemistry, morphology, modal mineralogy, and photomicrographs of amphiboles and other minerals in the Ironwood Iron-Formation, Gogebic Iron Range, Wisconsin, USA Chemistry, morphology, modal mineralogy, and photomicrographs of amphiboles and other minerals in the Ironwood Iron-Formation, Gogebic Iron Range, Wisconsin, USA
The Ironwood Iron-Formation, part of the Gogebic Iron Range in Wisconsin, is a Paleoproterozoic Superior-type banded iron formation (BIF) with substantial iron resource potential. The development of a Mesoproterozoic contact metamorphic aureole related to the emplacement of the Mellen Intrusive Complex resulted in the production of a variety of silicate minerals in the western portion of...
Oxide and Cation Compositions of Olivine Grains from Drill Core in the Duluth Complex, Minnesota Oxide and Cation Compositions of Olivine Grains from Drill Core in the Duluth Complex, Minnesota
The table contains oxide and cation compositions of olivine grains from drill core of the Duluth Complex, Minnesota. The oxides were determined by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and are reported in weight percent (wt%). The cations were calculated based on the oxide compositions and are reported in mole percent (mol%). Olivine is a magnesium iron orthosilicate mineral with the...
Filter Total Items: 97
Metamorphic amphiboles in the Ironwood Iron-Formation, Gogebic Iron Range, Wisconsin: Implications for potential resource development Metamorphic amphiboles in the Ironwood Iron-Formation, Gogebic Iron Range, Wisconsin: Implications for potential resource development
No abstract available.
Authors
Carlin Green, Robert R. Seal,, Nadine Piatak, William Cannon, Ryan McAleer, Julia Nord
Conceptual framework and approach for conducting a geoenvironmental assessment of undiscovered uranium resources Conceptual framework and approach for conducting a geoenvironmental assessment of undiscovered uranium resources
This report presents a novel conceptual framework and approach for conducting a geologically based environmental assessment, or geoenvironmental assessment, of undiscovered uranium resources within an area likely to contain uranium deposits. The framework is based on a source-to-receptor model that prioritizes the most likely contaminant sources, contaminant pathways, and affected...
Authors
Tanya J. Gallegos, Katherine Walton-Day, Robert R. Seal,
Micrometer-scale characterization of solid mine waste aids in closure due diligence Micrometer-scale characterization of solid mine waste aids in closure due diligence
Precious- and base-metal mining often occurs in deposits with high acid-generating potential, resulting in mine waste that contains metals in forms of varying bioavailability, and therefore toxicity. The solids that host these metals are often noncrystalline, nanometer to micrometer in size, or undetectable by readily available analytical techniques (e.g., X-ray diffraction). This...
Authors
Bryn E. Kimball, Heather E. Jamieson, Robert R. Seal,, Agatha Dobosz, Nadine Piatak
Hydrologic balance, water quality, chemical-mass balance, and geochemical modeling of hyperalkaline ponds at Big Marsh, Chicago, Illinois, 2016–17 Hydrologic balance, water quality, chemical-mass balance, and geochemical modeling of hyperalkaline ponds at Big Marsh, Chicago, Illinois, 2016–17
Hyperalkaline (pH greater than 12) ponds and groundwater exist at Big Marsh near Lake Calumet, Chicago, Illinois, a site used by the steel industry during the mid-1900s to deposit steel- and iron-making waste, in particular, slag. The hyperalkaline ponds may pose a hazard to human health and the environment. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the Environmental...
Authors
Amy Gahala, Robert R. Seal,, Nadine Piatak
Geochemical characterization of iron and steel slag and its potential to remove phosphate and neutralize acid Geochemical characterization of iron and steel slag and its potential to remove phosphate and neutralize acid
Iron and steel slags from legacy and modern operations in the Chicago-Gary area of Illinois and Indiana, USA, are predominantly composed of Ca (10 - 44 wt. % CaO), Fe, (0.3 - 28 wt. % FeO), and Si (10 - 44 wt. % SiO2), with generally lesser amounts of Al ( 1 15 wt. % Al2O3), Mg (2 11 wt. % MgO), and Mn (0.3 9 wt. % MnO). Mineralogy is dominated by CaMgAl silicates, FeCa oxides, Ca...
Authors
Nadine Piatak, Robert R. Seal,, Darryl Hoppe, Carlin Green, Paul Buszka
USGS critical minerals review USGS critical minerals review
The United States’ supply of critical minerals has been a concern and a source of potential strategic vulnerabilities for U.S. economic and national security interests for decades (for example, see Strategic and Critical Minerals Stockpiling Act, 1939). More recently, with the rapid increase in the types of materials being used in advanced technologies (Fortier et al. 2018a), and...
Authors
Steven Fortier, Jane Hammarstrom, Sarah Ryker, Warren Day, Robert R. Seal,
Tellurium Tellurium
Tellurium (Te) is a very rare element that averages only 3 parts per billion in Earth’s upper crust. It shows a close association with gold and may be present in orebodies of most gold deposit types at levels of tens to hundreds of parts per million. In large-tonnage mineral deposits, such as porphyry copper and seafloor volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, sulfide minerals may contain...
Authors
Richard Goldfarb, Byron Berger, Micheal George, Robert R. Seal,
Graphite Graphite
Graphite is a form of pure carbon that normally occurs as black crystal flakes and masses. It has important properties, such as chemical inertness, thermal stability, high electrical conductivity, and lubricity (slipperiness) that make it suitable for many industrial applications, including electronics, lubricants, metallurgy, and steelmaking. For some of these uses, no suitable...
Authors
Gilpin Robinson, Jane Hammarstrom, Donald Olson
Beryllium Beryllium
Beryllium is a mineral commodity that is used in a variety of industries to make products that are essential for the smooth functioning of a modern society. Two minerals, bertrandite (which is supplied domestically) and beryl (which is currently supplied solely by imports), are necessary to ensure a stable supply of high-purity beryllium metal, alloys, and metal-matrix composites and...
Authors
Nora Foley, Brian W. Jaskula, Nadine M. Piatak, Ruth Schulte
Platinum-group elements Platinum-group elements
The platinum-group elements (PGEs)—platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium—are metals that have similar physical and chemical properties and tend to occur together in nature. PGEs are indispensable to many industrial applications but are mined in only a few places. The availability and accessibility of PGEs could be disrupted by economic, environmental, political...
Authors
Michael Zientek, Patricia Loferski, Heather Parks, Ruth Schulte, Robert R. Seal
Zirconium and hafnium Zirconium and hafnium
Zirconium and hafnium are corrosion-resistant metals that are widely used in the chemical and nuclear industries. Most zirconium is consumed in the form of the main ore mineral zircon (ZrSiO4, or as zirconium oxide or other zirconium chemicals. Zirconium and hafnium are both refractory lithophile elements that have nearly identical charge, ionic radii, and ionic potentials. As a result...
Authors
James Jones, Nadine M. Piatak, George Bedinger
Rare-earth elements Rare-earth elements
The rare-earth elements (REEs) are 15 elements that range in atomic number from 57 (lanthanum) to 71 (lutetium); they are commonly referred to as the “lanthanides.” Yttrium (atomic number 39) is also commonly regarded as an REE because it shares chemical and physical similarities and has affinities with the lanthanides. Although REEs are not rare in terms of average crustal abundance...
Authors
Bradley Van Gosen, Philip Verplanck, Robert R. Seal,, Keith Long, Joseph Gambogi