Karst Aquifers: Valley and Ridge, Piedmont, and Blue Ridge Aquifers
Science Center Objects
The carbonate aquifers of the Appalachian Valley and Ridge Province, formed during Appalachian mountain building, have highly variable karst aquifer characteristics. The Valley and Ridge, Piedmont, and Blue Ridge Aquifers demonstrate karst features such as caves, sinkholes, sinking streams, and conduits.
The carbonate aquifers of the Appalachian Valley and Ridge Province are formed within a thick Paleozoic sequence of layered carbonate and siliciclastic rocks that were highly folded and faulted during Appalachian mountain building. Fluid flow thus has been through complex geologic structures, resulting in highly variable karst aquifer characteristics with a wide range of groundwater residence times, geochemical characteristics, and aquifer compartmentalization. Cave geometries likewise are variable, ranging from small, isolated caves of limited extent to some of the longest and deepest caves known in the United States.
The Great Valley aquifer is the primary carbonate aquifer in the Valley and Ridge Province, formed within a sequence of Cambrian and Ordovician rocks over 10,000 feet (3,048 meters) thick. This aquifer is an important water resource for numerous cities and towns along the Interstate 81 corridor from Tennessee to Pennsylvania.
The northern extent of the Great Valley in Virginia, West Virginia, and Maryland has been particularly well studied, especially within the drainage basin of the Shenandoah River. Larger springs typical of the Shenandoah Valley karst aquifer are 4th and 5th magnitude (10-500 gal/min; 0.6 to 28 L/sec) artesian springs, most with relatively muted discharge variability. Geologic structure strongly influences spring locations, discharge and geochemistry. Spring discharge accounts for more than 85% of stream flow in the Shenandoah River basin. As a result, surface-water quantity and quality is highly dependent on groundwater use and management. Circulation of groundwater through conduits exceeds depths of 2000 feet (610 meters) as evidenced by a small number of high-yield deep wells. Most wells are finished less than 300 feet (100 meters) below land surface and may yield between 1-150 gal/min (0.063-9.45 L/s). While the majority of springs have ambient water temperatures, many mildly thermal springs have been identified.
The Shenandoah Valley karst hosts a number of unique endemic species. Of note is the Madison Cave Isopod (Antrolana lira), a crustacean of originally marine ancestry found only caves containing fresh groundwater in the Shenandoah Valley region.
Sinkholes
Flourescent tracer is injected into a sinkhole as part of intensive investigations of the hydrogeology, water quality, and groundwater flow of the karst aquifer in the Hopewell Run Watershed, northern Shenandoah Valley, near Leetown, West Virginia. (Credit: Mark Kozar, USGS.)
Featured Studies and Datasets
Aquifer-scale studies and the datasets they produce are a key component to understanding how karst aquifers behave, and the quality of water within them.
- Assessment of the Northern Shenandoah Valley karst aquifer — Hydrogeologic assessment and simulation of groundwater flow.
Additional Information
The following websites are additional sources of information about this aquifer:
Karst Aquifers
Karst terrain is created from the dissolution of soluble rocks, principally limestone and dolomite. Karst areas are characterized by distinctive landforms (like springs, caves, sinkholes) and a unique hydrogeology that results in aquifers that are highly productive but extremely vulnerable to contamination.
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Date published: July 20, 2021Status: ActiveKarst Aquifers: Arbuckle-Simpson Aquifer
The Arbuckle-Simpson aquifer, which underlies more than 500 square miles in south central Oklahoma, is the principal water source for approximately 39,000 people in several cities in the region. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has designated the aquifer's eastern portion as a Sole Source Aquifer, a mechanism to protect drinking water supplies in areas with limited water supply.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: Basin and Range and Bear River Range Carbonate Aquifers
In the Basin and Range, bedrock is present in the uplifted blocks of the mountain ranges and beneath fill in the valleys. While some of this bedrock is relatively impermeable, fracturing may enable groundwater to circulate through the rock, enlarging and increasing the size and number of pathways for water movement. This can ultimately produce a permeable water-yielding unit.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: Colorado Plateau Karst
In northern and central Arizona, the Kaibab Limestone and its equivalents are karstic. North of the Grand Canyon, subterranean openings are primarily widely spaced fissures, while south of the Grand Canyon, fissures are more closely spaced and a few shallow caves are present.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: Edwards Balcones Fault Zone Aquifer
The Edwards aquifer is the most transmissive of all the aquifers in Texas and Oklahoma, with large discharges from springs and from flowing and pumped wells. This aquifer demonstrates karst features such as springs and in-stream sinkholes, as well as endangered species.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: Edwards-Trinity Plateau Aquifer
The Edwards-Trinity aquifer, located in the Trans-Pecos and the Edwards Plateau areas, is composed of relatively flat-lying rocks that are generally exposed at the land surface. This aquifer is generally recharged by precipitation; water is mostly unconfined in the shallow parts of the aquifer and is confined in the deeper zones.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: Upper Floridan and Biscayne Aquifers
Covering approximately 100,000 square miles of the southeastern United States, the Floridan aquifer system (FAS) is one of the most productive aquifers in the world. The FAS is the primary source of drinking water for almost 10 million people, with nearly 50 percent of all water withdrawals being used for industrial purposes and agricultural irrigation.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: Madison Aquifer
The Madison aquifer underlies eight states in the U.S. and Canada. It is an important water resource in the northern plains states where surface water supplies are limited and population is increasing. Declining water levels are a major issue for many of the communities that rely on this aquifer.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: Midwest Paleozoic Carbonate Aquifers
The porosity of carbonate and dolomitic units in Midwest Paleozoic rocks has been enhanced by dissolution, and in many areas these rocks have undergone extensive karst development. This aquifer demonstrates karst features such as disappearing streams, springs, and caves.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: New England Karst Aquifers
The New England Karst Aquifers feature crystalline limestones and marbles, narrow fissures, and some small caves.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources -
Date published: July 20, 2021Status: Active
Karst Aquifers: Ozark Plateau Karst Aquifers
The Ozark Plateaus aquifer system consists of two aquifers, the Springfield Plateau aquifer and the Ozark aquifer, and an intervening confining unit. The system consists of mostly of carbonate rocks that are Cambrian through Mississippian in age.
Contacts: Allan K ClarkAttribution: Water Resources
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Flow in the Opequon Creek Watershed area, Virginia and West Virginia
Due to increasing population and economic development in the northern Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and West Virginia, water availability has become a primary concern for water-resource managers in the region. To address these issues, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Health and Human Services...
Kozar, Mark D.; Weary, David J.
Bedrock structural controls on the occurrence of sinkholes and springs in the Northern Great Valley Karst, Virginia and West Virginia
Recent geologic mapping at a scale of 1:24,000 has enabled a qualitative correlation of the occurrence of springs and sinkholes with bedrock structures and ground-water conditions in the northern Great Valley of Virginia and West Virginia. Sinkholes tend to be concentrated in zones of faulting, local minor folding, and clustered within susceptible...
Doctor, Daniel H.; Weary, David J.; Orndorff, Randall C.; Harlow, George E.; Kozar, Mark D.; Nelms, David L.
Hydrogeology and water quality of the Leetown area, West Virginia
The U.S. Geological Survey’s Leetown Science Center and the co-located U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture both depend on large volumes of cold clean ground water to support research operations at their facilities. Currently, ground-water demands are provided by three springs and two standby...
Kozar, Mark D.; McCoy, Kurt J.; Weary, David J.; Field, Malcolm S.; Pierce, Herbert A.; Schill, William Bane; Young, John A. Use of sinkhole and specific capacity distributions to assess vertical gradients in a karst aquifer
The carbonate-rock aquifer in the Great Valley, West Virginia, USA, was evaluated using a database of 687 sinkholes and 350 specific capacity tests to assess structural, lithologic, and topographic influences on the groundwater flow system. The enhanced permeability of the aquifer is characterized in part by the many sinkholes, springs, and...
McCoy, K.J.; Kozar, M.D.
Hydrogeologic Setting and Ground-Water Flow in the Leetown Area, West Virginia
The Leetown Science Center is a research facility operated by the U.S. Geological Survey that occupies approximately 455-acres near Kearneysville, Jefferson County, West Virginia. Aquatic and fish research conducted at the Center requires adequate supplies of high-quality, cold ground water. Three large springs and three production wells currently...
Kozar, Mark D.; Weary, David J.; Paybins, Katherine S.; Pierce, Herbert A. Relation of Chlorofluorocarbon Ground-Water Age Dates to Water Quality in Aquifers of West Virginia
The average apparent age of ground water in fractured-bedrock aquifers in West Virginia was determined using chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) dating methods. Since the introduction of CFC gases as refrigerants in the late 1930s, atmospheric concentrations have increased until production ceased in the mid-1990s. CFC dating methods are based on production...
Kurt, J.; Kozar, Mark D. Fracture trace map and single-well aquifer test results in a carbonate aquifer in Jefferson County, West Virginia
McCoy, K.J.; Podwysocki, M. H.; Crider, E.A.; Weary, D.J. Fracture trace map and single-well aquifer test results in a carbonate aquifer in Berkeley County, West Virginia
These data contain information on the results of single-well aquifer tests, lineament analysis, and a bedrock geologic map compilation for the low-lying carbonate and shale areas of eastern Berkeley County, West Virginia. Efforts have been initiated by management agencies of Berkeley County in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey to further...
McCoy, Kurt J.; Podwysocki, Melvin H.; Crider, E. Allen; Weary, David J.
Large springs in the Valley and Ridge physiographic province of Pennsylvania
In the Valley and Ridge physiographic province of Pennsylvania, 137 springs have a single or median discharge value equal to or greater than 100 gallons per minute. Information for these large springs has been tabulated to summarize the data useful to the U.S. Geological Survey's Appalachian Valleys--Piedmont Regional Aquifer-System Analysis study...
Saad, D.A.; Hippe, D.J.