Most of western North America has been severely grazed by cattle, causing grasslands to deteriorate and desert scrub expansion. Climate in arid and semi-arid regions is often typified by short, intense rainfall events which contribute to short-term flooding and erosion. Associated arroyo cutting occurs when ephemeral creek beds are carved into the floodplain when erratic overland flow occurs; this lowers water tables, depleting surface and subsurface water supplies. When surface runoff is high, little recharge infiltrates to the basin aquifer, and high-intensity flow transports heavy sediment loads to channels, contributing to nonpoint source pollution in surface water bodies.
People living in arid land environments all over the globe have developed ways to manipulate the earth’s surface to benefit and sustain agricultural practices via water harvesting. Archaeologists have discovered such features dating back to Before the Common Era and in the Madrean Archipelago Ecoregion (Sky Islands) built over a thousand years ago.
Federal agencies, including the US Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Parks Service, and Bureau of Land Management, are major land managers in this region, concerned with developing sustainable water supplies and vegetation for future generations and engage in best management practices. Additionally, private ranch owners have identified an immediate need for the adoption of proper conservation strategies in this area to control the eutrophication in downstream water supplies and to prevent further watershed degradation.
One solution is to install rock detention structures, such as (i.) a one rock dam (one-rock high) bed of rocks (en espanol: trinchera) can be in channels or hillslopes, (ii.) a check dam (gully plug), usually ~3 foot high loose rock structure set into channel, and/or (iii.) a rock gabion, which consists of rocks rapped in wire cage and keyed into channel (see Drawings)
An effort to develop soil and water conservation measures in local riparian zones has recently been revived in both private and public lands in this region using rock detention structures to restore landscapes and create resiliency to change. Specific ally, structures are built to detain rainwater-runoff to (i.) increase infiltration and improve recharge, (ii.) increase surface water for plants and animals, and (iii.) reduce erosion, stabilize soil and prevent downstream transport. These goals have been identified colloquially, but not qualified nor quantified scientifically. We have broken these expected results into a list of Ecosystem Services.
Broad Science Questions
As such, we have developed a series of scientific questions to address their impacts both qualitatively and quantitatively, and the list keeps growing.
Project Objectives
I. Determine metrics to discern effectiveness of rock detention structures (quantifiable results).
II. Work with partners to determine where new structures should be…..
1. For flood prevention?
2. For vegetation and habitat?
3. To “heal” the land?
4. For groundwater recharge?
5. To reduce erosion and nonpoint source pollution (sedimentation in streams)?
6. To increase surface water?
7. To armor landscapes?
Scientific methodology
Our research is based on the hydrologic cycle that describes water as either: a) evaporated or transpired to the atmosphere; b) stored in the soil or in underground aquifers; or c) discharged to a nearby waterway (Fig. 3).
- Terrestrial monitoring documents the hydrological impacts of water harvesting devices and helps identify sites for future installation in Patagonia.
- Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite imagery and the derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values are being used to monitor changes in vegetation greenness at a desert wetland in San Bernardino.
- Hydrological geospatial models, including the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and the Kinematic Runoff and Erosion Model (KINEROS2) are being used (with Terrestrial LiDAR (T-LiDAR) datasets) to monitor changes in surface flow, infiltration, and sediment build-up at new check dams and detention features in Nogales, Patagonia, and at the Babocomari.
- T-LiDAR data and 2-D hydraulic models are also being used to examine changes in vegetation structure and channel dimensions in Patagonia.
- Hydrographs are developed using Continuous Slope Area methods to be input to calibrate watershed models for long-term predictions in the Chiricahua Mountains.
Acknowledgements
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is a Federal agency that conducts science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment. This research is part of the Core Science Systems (CSS) Change Mission Area of the USGS, which undertakes scientific research using monitoring, remote sensing to address the effects of climate and land use change. The CSS provides the scientific foundation upon which policymakers, natural resource managers, and the public make informed decisions about the management of natural resources. Funding comes from the Land Change Science Program (LCSP) to understand the patterns, processes, and consequences of changes using models to predict scenarios of future conditions, and conduct integrative, holistic assessments.
Below are science projects managed under the Aridland Water Harvesting Study.
Cienega Ranch - Semi-desert Native Grassland Restoration
Rancho Ancón – Water Cycle Augmentation
Ciénega San Bernardino - Wetland Restoration
Patagonia - Gully Restoration
Nogales, Sonora - Flood Control
Chiricahua Mountains - Reduction of Channel Gradients
Babocomari - Managed Aquifer Recharge
Below are data releases published by the Aridland Water Harvesting Study.
Database of Cienega Locations in Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico
Watershed Pairing of Sub-Basins within Smith Canyon Watershed using a Hierarchical Clustering Approach
Short Term Vegetation Response Study at Watershed Restoration Structures in Southeastern Arizona, 2015 - 2019
Data Release for Analysis of Vegetation Recovery Surrounding a Restored Wetland using the Normalized Difference Infrared Index (NDII) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
Below are journal articles and reports published by the Aridland Water Harvesting Study.
Natural infrastructure in dryland streams (NIDS) can establish regenerative wetland sinks that reverse desertification and strengthen climate resilience
Five year analyses of vegetation response to restoration using rock detention structures in southeastern Arizona, United States
Commentary: Dryland watershed restoration with rock detention structures: A nature-based solution to mitigate drought, erosion, flooding, and atmospheric carbon
Wildfire probability models calibrated using past human and lightning ignition patterns can inform mitigation of post-fire hydrologic hazards
Flood resilience in paired US–Mexico border cities: A study of binational risk perceptions
Integrating urban planning and water management through green infrastructure in the United States-Mexico border
A shared vision for enhancing ecological resilience in the U.S. - Mexico borderlands: The Sky Island Restoration Collaborative
Hierarchical clustering for paired watershed experiments: Case study in southeastern Arizona, U.S.A.
Developing climate resilience in aridlands using rock detention structures as green infrastructure
Editorial: Combining the science and practice of restoration ecology-Case studies of a grassroots binational restoration collaborative in the Madrean Archipelago Ecoregion (2014- 2019)
Remote sensing analysis to quantify change in woodland canopy cover on the San Carlos Apache Reservation, Arizona (1935 vs. 2017)
Preliminary assessment of carbon and nitrogen sequestration potential of wildfire-derived sediments stored by erosion control structures in forest ecosystems, southwest USA
Ecosystem services of riparian restoration: A review of rock detention structures in the Madrean Archipelago Ecoregion
Below are news stories and announcements about the Aridland Water Harvesting Study.
Researchers, partners and stakeholders
Sky Island Restoration Collaboration (SIRC)
A new consortium is working to share and integrate conservation efforts in the Madrean Sky Island Archipelago. The collective goal is to conduct a landscape-level resource assessment, at a multiple watershed scale, to evaluate condition and prioritize areas and methods for restorative treatment.
- Overview
Most of western North America has been severely grazed by cattle, causing grasslands to deteriorate and desert scrub expansion. Climate in arid and semi-arid regions is often typified by short, intense rainfall events which contribute to short-term flooding and erosion. Associated arroyo cutting occurs when ephemeral creek beds are carved into the floodplain when erratic overland flow occurs; this lowers water tables, depleting surface and subsurface water supplies. When surface runoff is high, little recharge infiltrates to the basin aquifer, and high-intensity flow transports heavy sediment loads to channels, contributing to nonpoint source pollution in surface water bodies.
Click here** to see the "Informative video animated by Hans J. Huth portraying natural infrastructure in dryland streams (NIDS) in a watershed and descriptions of their documented climate-smart practices, graphic illustrated by Heartwood Visuals" (Supplementary video 1; Norman et al. 2022).
People living in arid land environments all over the globe have developed ways to manipulate the earth’s surface to benefit and sustain agricultural practices via water harvesting. Archaeologists have discovered such features dating back to Before the Common Era and in the Madrean Archipelago Ecoregion (Sky Islands) built over a thousand years ago.
Federal agencies, including the US Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Parks Service, and Bureau of Land Management, are major land managers in this region, concerned with developing sustainable water supplies and vegetation for future generations and engage in best management practices. Additionally, private ranch owners have identified an immediate need for the adoption of proper conservation strategies in this area to control the eutrophication in downstream water supplies and to prevent further watershed degradation.
One solution is to install rock detention structures, such as (i.) a one rock dam (one-rock high) bed of rocks (en espanol: trinchera) can be in channels or hillslopes, (ii.) a check dam (gully plug), usually ~3 foot high loose rock structure set into channel, and/or (iii.) a rock gabion, which consists of rocks rapped in wire cage and keyed into channel (see Drawings)
Drawings by Chloé Fandel, Graduate Student at the University of Arizona. An effort to develop soil and water conservation measures in local riparian zones has recently been revived in both private and public lands in this region using rock detention structures to restore landscapes and create resiliency to change. Specific ally, structures are built to detain rainwater-runoff to (i.) increase infiltration and improve recharge, (ii.) increase surface water for plants and animals, and (iii.) reduce erosion, stabilize soil and prevent downstream transport. These goals have been identified colloquially, but not qualified nor quantified scientifically. We have broken these expected results into a list of Ecosystem Services.
Broad Science Questions
As such, we have developed a series of scientific questions to address their impacts both qualitatively and quantitatively, and the list keeps growing.
Ecosystem Services derived scientific question that our project addresses.(Public domain.) Project Objectives
I. Determine metrics to discern effectiveness of rock detention structures (quantifiable results).
II. Work with partners to determine where new structures should be…..
1. For flood prevention?
2. For vegetation and habitat?
3. To “heal” the land?
4. For groundwater recharge?
5. To reduce erosion and nonpoint source pollution (sedimentation in streams)?
6. To increase surface water?
7. To armor landscapes?
Scientific methodology
Our research is based on the hydrologic cycle that describes water as either: a) evaporated or transpired to the atmosphere; b) stored in the soil or in underground aquifers; or c) discharged to a nearby waterway (Fig. 3).
- Terrestrial monitoring documents the hydrological impacts of water harvesting devices and helps identify sites for future installation in Patagonia.
- Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite imagery and the derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values are being used to monitor changes in vegetation greenness at a desert wetland in San Bernardino.
- Hydrological geospatial models, including the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and the Kinematic Runoff and Erosion Model (KINEROS2) are being used (with Terrestrial LiDAR (T-LiDAR) datasets) to monitor changes in surface flow, infiltration, and sediment build-up at new check dams and detention features in Nogales, Patagonia, and at the Babocomari.
- T-LiDAR data and 2-D hydraulic models are also being used to examine changes in vegetation structure and channel dimensions in Patagonia.
- Hydrographs are developed using Continuous Slope Area methods to be input to calibrate watershed models for long-term predictions in the Chiricahua Mountains.
This image shows all the study watersheds and affiliated ranches, cities and Federal agencies in the Aridland Water Harvesting Study. Schematic of hydrologic cycle (aka. Water budget)(Public domain.) Acknowledgements
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is a Federal agency that conducts science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment. This research is part of the Core Science Systems (CSS) Change Mission Area of the USGS, which undertakes scientific research using monitoring, remote sensing to address the effects of climate and land use change. The CSS provides the scientific foundation upon which policymakers, natural resource managers, and the public make informed decisions about the management of natural resources. Funding comes from the Land Change Science Program (LCSP) to understand the patterns, processes, and consequences of changes using models to predict scenarios of future conditions, and conduct integrative, holistic assessments.
- Science
Below are science projects managed under the Aridland Water Harvesting Study.
Cienega Ranch - Semi-desert Native Grassland Restoration
At the Cienega Ranch, near Willcox, Arizona, in the foothills of the Dos Cabeza Mountains, a rancher is working to restore and conserve high- quality native grasslands and critical wildlife habitat, while keeping the land as a working cattle ranch. Our objectives were to estimate the hydrological effect of water harvesting on grassland restoration and quantify how grassland conservation efforts...Rancho Ancón – Water Cycle Augmentation
The USGS is working with partners to understand the impacts of installing structures made from rock, sandbags and wood in channels at a dryland ranch in southern Baja California. Hydrogeological instrumentation, recording observations, modeling hydrogeological scenarios, and an interdisciplinary scientific study of the watershed interactions between water, ecological systems, and human activities...Ciénega San Bernardino - Wetland Restoration
Desert marshes and wetlands, or “ciénegas”, are extremely biodiverse habitats imperiled by anthropogenic demands for water and changing climates. Given their widespread loss and increased recognition as important wildlife habitat, remarkably little is known about restoration techniques.Patagonia - Gully Restoration
The Deep Dirt Farm Institute (DDFI), founded and directed by Kate Tirion, comprises 34 acres with deep agricultural soils, bisected by an ephemeral stream/wildlife corridor. The farm lies within a folded topography of hills, small sheltered valleys & broad meadow. A deep gully has diverted flows and needs repair.Nogales, Sonora - Flood Control
Flooding in Ambos Nogales often exceeds the capacity of the channel and adjacent land areas, endangering people and property. Goals of rock detention structures (RDS) are to diminish impacts of flooding and sedimentation on wastewater infrastructure thereby reducing the incidence of sanitary sewer overflows. We are studying the Nogales Wash to prevent future flood disasters and RDS are being...Chiricahua Mountains - Reduction of Channel Gradients
Drainages in the Chiricahua Mountains are impacted by large rain events that cause gullying effects in the headwaters, overflow at road crossings, flooding of campgrounds, and overwhelming sediment loads at outlets (Chiricahua National Monument). Monsoon rains following recent fires cause severe flooding in most drainages and debris flows in many others. Watershed restoration has been a major goal...Babocomari - Managed Aquifer Recharge
We are working to investigate the most cost-efficient way to recharge the Sierra Vista sub-basin aquifer using rainwater harvesting in the tributaries of the San Pedro River using low-technology methods. Research is being conducted on the Babacomari Ranch, property of the Brophy family. The Walton Family Foundation (WFF) is supporting our research with partners, Borderlands Restoration (BR)... - Data
Below are data releases published by the Aridland Water Harvesting Study.
Database of Cienega Locations in Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico
Cienegas, as defined here, are wetlands in arid and semi-arid regions associated with groundwater or lotic components that ideally result in perennial waters on temporal scales of decades to centuries. Cienegas are typically no lower than 0 m, and higher than 2000 m, rarely lower but sometimes higher elevation localities occur. Cienegas are typified by significant differences in flora and fauna reWatershed Pairing of Sub-Basins within Smith Canyon Watershed using a Hierarchical Clustering Approach
This data release contains data used in an upcoming associated publication currently in review. The overarching effects and benefits of land management decisions, such as through watershed restoration, are often not fully understood due to a lacking control within an experimental design. This can be addressed through the application of a paired watershed approach, allowing for comparison betweenShort Term Vegetation Response Study at Watershed Restoration Structures in Southeastern Arizona, 2015 - 2019
This dataset contains vegetation data collected at a variety of watershed restoration sites across southeastern Arizona over 5 years. The semiarid habitats in the Madrean Archipelago Ecoregion, which extends from southern Arizona into northern Mexico, are facing many challenges from climate change to land use change which threaten the ecological and cultural values of the region. Watershed restoraData Release for Analysis of Vegetation Recovery Surrounding a Restored Wetland using the Normalized Difference Infrared Index (NDII) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
This dataset contains data used in the associated publication in the International Journal of Remote Sensing. The geodatabase contains four feature classes: AOI, MajorZone, MinorZone, and Green2007. Publication can be found at https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2018.1437297. Publication abstract: Watershed restoration efforts seek to rejuvenate vegetation, biological diversity, and land productivit - Publications
Below are journal articles and reports published by the Aridland Water Harvesting Study.
Natural infrastructure in dryland streams (NIDS) can establish regenerative wetland sinks that reverse desertification and strengthen climate resilience
In this article we describe the natural hydrogeomorphological and biogeochemical cycles of dryland fluvial ecosystems that make them unique, yet vulnerable to land use activities and climate change. We introduce Natural Infrastructure in Dryland Streams (NIDS), which are structures naturally or anthropogenically created from earth, wood, debris, or rock that can restore implicit function of theseAuthorsLaura M. Norman, Rattan Lal, Ellen Wohl, Emily Fairfax, Allen Gellis, Michael M. PollockFilter Total Items: 28Five year analyses of vegetation response to restoration using rock detention structures in southeastern Arizona, United States
Rock detention structures (RDS) are used in restoration of riparian areas around the world. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of RDS installation on vegetation in terms of species abundance and composition. We present the results from 5 years of annual vegetation sampling which focused on short term non-woody vegetation response within the riparian channel at 3 restoration sitesAuthorsNatalie R. Wilson, Laura M. NormanCommentary: Dryland watershed restoration with rock detention structures: A nature-based solution to mitigate drought, erosion, flooding, and atmospheric carbon
No abstract available.AuthorsLaura M. NormanWildfire probability models calibrated using past human and lightning ignition patterns can inform mitigation of post-fire hydrologic hazards
Most wildfires are started by humans, however, geographic variation of potential ignition sources is not often explicitly accounted for in wildfire simulation modelling or risk assessments. In this study, we investigated how patterns of human and lightning ignitions can influence modelled fire simulations and demonstrate how these data can be used to assess post-fire flooding and sediment transporAuthorsMiguel L. Villarreal, Laura M. Norman, Erika Yao, Caroline Rose ConradFlood resilience in paired US–Mexico border cities: A study of binational risk perceptions
Disastrous floods in the twin cities of Nogales, Arizona, USA, and Nogales, Sonora, Mexico (collectively referred to as Ambos Nogales) occur annually in response to monsoonal summer rains. Flood-related hazards include property damage, impairment to sewage systems, sewage discharge, water contamination, erosion, and loss of life. Flood risk, particularly in Nogales, Sonora, is amplified by informaAuthorsChristopher A. Freimund, Gregg M. Garfin, Laura M. Norman, Larry A. Fisher, James BuizerIntegrating urban planning and water management through green infrastructure in the United States-Mexico border
Creating sustainable, resilient, and livable cities calls for integrative approaches and collaborative practices across temporal and spatial scales. However, practicability is challenged by institutional, social, and technical complexities and the need to build collective understanding of integrated approaches. Rapid urbanization along the United States-Mexico border, fueled by industrialization,AuthorsFrancisco Lara-Valencia, Margaret Garcia, Laura M. Norman, Alma Anides Morales, Edgar E. Castellanos-RubioA shared vision for enhancing ecological resilience in the U.S. - Mexico borderlands: The Sky Island Restoration Collaborative
No abstract available.AuthorsLaura M. Norman, Michele Girard, H. Ron Pulliam, Miguel L. Villarreal, Valer Austin Clark, Aaron D. Flesch, Roy Petrakis, Jeremiah Leibowitz, Deborah Tosline, Kurt Vaughn, Tess Wagner, Caleb Weaver, Trevor Hare, Jose Manuel Perez, Oscar E. Lopez Bujanda, Josiah T. Austin, Carianne Funicelli Campbell, James B. Callegary, Natalie R. Wilson, Jeff Conn, Tom Sisk, Gary L. NabhanHierarchical clustering for paired watershed experiments: Case study in southeastern Arizona, U.S.A.
Watershed studies are often onerous due to a lack of data available to portray baseline conditions with which to compare results of monitoring environmental effects. A paired-watershed approach is often adopted to simulate baseline conditions in an adjacent watershed that can be comparable but assumes there is a quantifiable relationship between the control and treated watersheds. Finding suitablyAuthorsRoy Petrakis, Laura M. Norman, Kurt Vaughn, Richard Pritzlaff, Caleb Weaver, Audrey J Rader, H. Ronald PulliamDeveloping climate resilience in aridlands using rock detention structures as green infrastructure
The potential of ecological restoration and green infrastructure has been long suggested in the literature as adaptation strategies for a changing climate, with an emphasis on revegetation and, more recently, carbon sequestration and stormwater management. Tree planting and “natural” stormwater detention structures such as bioswales, stormwater detention basins, and sediment traps are popular apprAuthorsLaura M. Norman, Benjamin L. Ruddell, Deborah Tosline, Michael Fell, Blair P. Greimann, Jay CederbergEditorial: Combining the science and practice of restoration ecology-Case studies of a grassroots binational restoration collaborative in the Madrean Archipelago Ecoregion (2014- 2019)
The Sky Island Restoration Collaborative (SIRC) is a growing partnership between government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and private landowners in southeast Arizona, the United States, and northern Sonora, Mexico. Starting in 2014 as an experiment to cultivate restoration efforts by connecting people across vocations and nations, SIRC has evolved over 5 years into a flourishing landscape-resAuthorsLaura M. Norman, H. Ronald Pulliam, Michele Girard, Steven M. Buckley, Louise W. Misztal, David Seibert, Carianne Campbell, James B. Callegary, Deborah J. Tosline, Natalie R. Wilson, David Hodges, Jeff Conn, A. Valer Austin-ClarkRemote sensing analysis to quantify change in woodland canopy cover on the San Carlos Apache Reservation, Arizona (1935 vs. 2017)
Since the late 1800s, pinyon–juniper woodland across the western U.S. has increased in density and areal extent and encroached into former grassland areas. The San Carlos Apache Tribe wants to gain qualitative and quantitative information on the historical conditions of their tribal woodlands to use as a baseline for restoration efforts. At the San Carlos Apache Reservation, in east-central ArizonAuthorsBarry R. Middleton, Laura M. NormanPreliminary assessment of carbon and nitrogen sequestration potential of wildfire-derived sediments stored by erosion control structures in forest ecosystems, southwest USA
The role of pyrogenic carbon (PyC) in the global carbon cycle is still incompletely characterized. Much work has been done to characterize PyC on landforms and in soils where it originates or in “terminal” reservoirs such as marine sediments. Less is known about intermediate reservoirs such as streams and rivers, and few studies have characterized hillslope and in-stream erosion control structuresAuthorsJames B. Callegary, Laura M. Norman, Christopher J. Eastoe, Joel B. Sankey, Ann YoubergEcosystem services of riparian restoration: A review of rock detention structures in the Madrean Archipelago Ecoregion
In northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States, limited water supplies and fragile landscapes jeopardize world-renowned biological diversity. Simple rock detention structures have been used to manage agricultural water for over a thousand years and are now being installed to restore ecohydrological functionality but with little scientific evidence of their success. The impacts, design,AuthorsLaura M. Norman - News
Below are news stories and announcements about the Aridland Water Harvesting Study.
Filter Total Items: 35 - Partners
Researchers, partners and stakeholders
Sky Island Restoration Collaboration (SIRC)
A new consortium is working to share and integrate conservation efforts in the Madrean Sky Island Archipelago. The collective goal is to conduct a landscape-level resource assessment, at a multiple watershed scale, to evaluate condition and prioritize areas and methods for restorative treatment.
Filter Total Items: 45